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THE
WORKS
OF
SIR WILLIAM JONES.
IN SIX VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
LONDON :
PRINTED FOR G. G. AND J. ROBINSON, PATER-NOSTER-ROW ;
AND R. H. EVANS (SUCCESSOR TO MR. EDWARDS), NO, 26, PALL-MALL.
MDCCXCIX.
J h
V- 1
TO THE HONOURABLE
THE DIRECTORS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY,
WHO HAVE HONOURED THE MEMORY
OF THE AUTHOR
WITH DISTINGUISHED MARKS OF RESPECT AND ESTEEM,
THESE VOLUMES
ARE GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
BY THE EDITOR.
" He was a pearl too pure on earth to dwell,
" And wafte his fplendor in this mortal fhell."
Frtm the ArabUk, Vol. II. p. 520.
PREFACE.
a
The befl monument that can be ere6ted to a man
of literary talents, is a good edition of his works."
Such was the opinion of Sir William Jones. In-
trufted with his Manufcripts, the Editor has therefore
long regarded it as a facred duty to publifh the vo-
lumes now offered to the world. Various circum-
ftances have delayed the publication ; but fhe trufts to
the indulgence of the feeling, and the candid, when
they confider the difficulty of colle6ting papers fo
widely difperfed ; and alfo thofe habits of inadivity,
and indecifion, which afflidion impofes on a mind that
has been deeply wounded.
The
PREFACE.
The Editor referves to herfelf the Hberty of giving,
at a future period, any pofthumous papers, or biogra-
phical anecdotes, of a chara6ler, which fhe beheves to
be fcarce lefs interefting to the publick, than dear to
herfelf! The prefent colledion confifts of all the
works printed during the Author's life, and of fome
others, which, though not corredled by him for the
prefs, evidently appear to have been intended for pub-
lication. To thefe, the Editor thinks fhe may, with
much propriety, prefix Sir John Shore's* admirable
difcourfe, delivered before the Afiatick Society in Cal-
cutta, in May, 17^4 ; both as a mark of her refpe6l for
the writer, and becaufe it gives the mofi: accurate, and
comprehenfive account, yet extant, of Sir William
Jones's enlarged views, and literary labours ; and tends
to illuftrate a chara6ter already endeared to mankind,
wherever Religion, Science, and Philofophy, prevail!
A. M. J.
* Lord Teignmouth.
CONTENTS
TO
THE FIRST VOLUME.
A PAGE
DISCOURSE delivered at a Meeting of the Afiatick Society,
in Calcutta, on the 2 2d of May, 1 794, by the Honourable Sir
John Shore ____----- i
A Difcourfe on the Inftitution of a Society for Inquiring into the
Hiftory, civil, and natural, the Antiquities, Arts, Sciences, and
Literature, of Afia -------- 1
The Second Anniverfary Difcourfe, delivered 2-4th of February,
1785 --- _-9
The Third Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Hindus, delivered 2d of
February, 17B0 - - -IQ
The Fourth Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Arabs, delivered 15th
of February, 1787 - ------- 35
The Fifth Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Tartars, delivered 2 1 ft of
February, 1788 51
The Sixth Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Perfians, delivered 1 gth
of February, l/SQ- - - - - - - -73
The Seventh Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Chinefe, delivered
25 th of February, 1790 -------95
The Eighth Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Borderers, Moun-
taineers, and Iflanders of Afia, delivered 24th of February, 1791 1^3
The Ninth Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Origin, and Families of
Nations, delivered 23d of February, 1792 - - - - 129
The
CONTENTS TO THE FIRST VOLUME.
PAGE
The Tenth Anniverfary Difcourfe, on Afiatick Hiftory, civil, and
natural, delivered 28th of February, 17Q3 - - - - 143
The Eleventh Anniverfary Difcourfe, on the Philofophy of the
Afiaticks, delivered 20th of February, 1794 _ _ - isg
A Differtation on the Orthography of Afiatick Words in Roman
Letters - - __ _ _ - _ _ -175
On the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India ----- 229
On the Chronology of the Hindus - - - - -281
A Supplement to the Effay on Indian Chronology - - - 315
Note to Mr. Vanfittart's Paper on the Afghans being defcended
from the Jews - - - - - - - - 331
On the Antiquity of the Indian Zodlack ----- 333
On the Literature of the Hindus, from the Sanfcrit - - _ 349
On the Second Clafhcal Book of the Chinefe _ - _ - 3O5
The Lunar Year of the Hindus - - - - - -375
On the Mufical Modes of the Hindus - - - - - 413
On the Myftical Poetry of the Perfians and Hindus - - 445
Gitagovinda, or the Song of Jayadeva - - _ _ _ 463
Remarks on the Ifland of Hinzuan, or Johanna - - - 485
A Converfation with Abram, an AbyfTmian, concerning the city of
Gwender, and the Sources of the Nile - - - - 515
On the Courfe of the Nile - _ _ _ _ -5in
On the Indian Game of Chefs - - - _ _ -5 21
An Indian Grant of Land, found at Tanna - - - - 529
Infcriptions on the Staff of Firuz Shah - - _ _ ^SQ
On the Baya, or Indian Grofs-beak - - - - -543
On the Pangolin of Bahar - - - _ _ -545
On the Loris, or flow-paced Lemur - - _ _ - 5. is
On the Cure of the Elephantiafis - - - - _ 54Q
On the Cure of the Elephantiafis, and other Diforders of the Blood 55 3
A DISCOURSE
DISCOURSE
DELIVERED AT A MEETING OF THE
ASIATICK SOCIETY,
IN CALCUTTA,
ON THE
TWENTY-SECOND OF MAY, 1794.
BY THE HONOURABLE
SIR JOHN SHORE, BART*.
PRESIDENT.
* Since Lord Teignmouth.
VOL. I.
DISCOURSE, &c.
GENTLEMEN,
I
F I had confulted my competency only, for the ftation which your
choice has conferred upon me, I muft without hefitation have declined
the honour of being the Prefident of this Society ; and although I moft
cheerfully accept your invitation, with every inclination to affift, as far
as my abilities extend, in promoting the laudable views of your affocia-
tion, I muft ftill retain the confcioufnefs of thofe dilqualifications, which
you have been pleafed to overlook.
It was lately our boaft to pofTefs a Prefident, whofe name, talents,
and charadter, would have been honourable to any inftitution ; it
is now our misfortune to lament, that Sir William Jones exifts, but
in the afFe6lions of his friends, and in the efteem, veneration, and
regret of all.
B 2 I cannot.
[ Jv ]
1 cannot, I flatter myfelf, offer a more grateful tribute to the Society,
than by making his charader the fubjeft of my firft addrefs to you ; and
if in the delineation of it, fondnefs or affeftion for the man fhould ap-
pear blended with my reverence for his genius and abilities, in the fym-
pathy of your feelings I fhall find my apology.
To define with accuracy the variety, value, and extent of his literary
attainments, requires more learning than I pretend to polTefs, and I
am therefore to Iblicit your indulgence for an imperfed (ketch, rather
than expe6l your approbation for a complete defcription of the talents,
and knowledge, of your late and lamented Prefident.
1 fhall begin with mentioning his wonderful capacity for the acqul-
fition of languages, which has never been excelled. In Greek and Roman
literature, his early proficiency was the fubjedl: of admiration and ap-
plaufe; and knowledge, of whatever nature, once obtained by him, was
ever afterwards progreflive. The more elegant dialedls of modern ^wro^t-,
the French, the SpaniJJj, and the Italian, he fpoke and wrote with the
greateft fluency and precifion ; and the German and Portuguefe were
familiar to him. At an early period of life his application to Oriental
literature commenced ; he fludied the Hebrew with eafe and fuccefs,
and many of the mofl learned Afiaticks have the candour to avow, that
his knowledge of Arabick and Perjian was as accurate and extenfive as
their own ; he was alfo converfant in the TurkiJJo idiom, and the Chmeje
had even attraded his notice, fo far as to induce him to learn the ra-
dical characters of that language, with a view perhaps to farther im-
provements. It was to be expefted, after his arrival in /Ww, that he
would eagerly embrace the opportunity of making himfelf mafler of the
Sanfcrit; and the mofl enlightened profeffors of the do6trines of Brahma
confefs with pride, delight, and flirprife, that his knowledge of their
facred dialed was moft critically corred and profound. The ra?idiis,
who
[ ^ ]
who were In the habit of attending him, when I faw them after his
death, at a pubUc Durbar^ could neither furprefs their tears for his lofs,
nor find terms to exprefs their admiration at the wonderful progrefs he
had made in their Iciences.
Before the expiration of his twenty-fccond year, he had completed his
Commentaries on the Poetry of the yljiaticks, although a confiderable
time afterwards elapfed before their publication ; and this work, if no
other monument of his labours exifted, would at once furnifli proofs of
his confummate (kill in the Oriental dialeds, of his proficiency in thofe
of Rome and Greece, of tafte and erudition far beyond his years, and of
talents and application without example.
But the judgement of Sir William Jones was too difcerning to con-
fider language in any other light than as the key of fcience, and he
would have defpifed the reputation of a mere linguift. Knowledge
and truth, were the objedl of all his fludies, and his ambition was to
be ufeful to mankind ; with thefe views, he extended his refearches to
all languages, nations, and times.
Such were the motives that induced him to propofc to the Go\ ern-
ment of this country, what he juftly denominated a work of national
utility and importance, the compilation of a copious digefl: of Hindu and
Mahommedan Law, from Sanfcrit and Arabick originals, with an offer
of his fervices to fuperintend the compilation, and with a promile to
tranflate it. He had forefeen, previous to his departure from Europe,
that without the aid of fuch a work, the wife and benevolent inten-
tions of the legiflature of Great Britain, in leaving, to a certain extent,
the natives of thefe provinces in pofTeflion of their own laws, could not
be completely fulfilled ; and his experience, after a fhort refidence in
India, confirmed what his lagaclty had anticipated, that without prhi-
ciples
[ vi 1
ciples to refer to, in a language familiar to the judges of the courts, ad-
judications amongft the natives muft too often be fubjeft to an uncer-
tain and erroneous expofition, or wilful mifinterpretation of their laws.
To the fuperintendance of this work, which was immediately un-
dertaken at his fuggertion, he affiduoufly devoted thofe hours which he
could fpare from his profeflional duties. After tracing the plan of the
digeft, he prefcribed its arrangement and mode of execution, and fele6l-
ed from the moft learned Hindus and Mahommedatis fit perfons for the
talk of compiling it; flattered by his attention, and encouraged by his
applaufe, the Pandits profecuted their labours with cheerful zeal, to a
fatisfa6lory conclufion. The Molavees have alfo nearly finiflied their
portion of the work, but we muft ever regret, that the promifed tran-
(lation, as well as the meditated preliminary difTertation, have been
fruftrated by that decree, which fo often intercepts the performance of
human purpofes.
During the courfe of this compilation, and as auxiliary to it, he was
led to ftudy the works of Menu, reputed by the Hindus to be the oldeft,
and holicft of legiflatures ; and finding them to comprize a fyftem of
religious and civil duties, and of law in all its branches, fo compre-
henfive and minutely exaft, that it might be confidered as the Inftitutes
of Hindu law, he prefented a tranflation of them to the Government
of Bengal. During the fame period, deeming no labour exceflive or
fuperfluous that tended, in any refpe61, to promote the welfare or hap-
pinefs of mankind, he gave the public an Englip verfion of the Arabick
text of the Sirajiyah, or Mahommedan Law of Inheritance, with a
Commentary. He had already publifhed in England, a tranflation of a
Traft on the fame fubjeft, by another Mahommedan Lawyer, containing,
as his own words exprefs, " a lively and elegant epitome of the law of
Inheritance, according to Zaid."
To
[ vii ]
To thefe learned and important works, fo far out of the road of
amufement, nothing could have engaged his appHcation, but that de-
fire which he ever profelfed, of rendering his knowledge ufeful to his
nation, and beneficial to the inhabitants of thefe provinces.
Without attending to the chronological order of their publication,
I fhall briefly recapitulate his other performances in Afiatick Litera-
ture, as far as my knowledge and recoUeftion of them extend.
The vanity and petulance of Anquetil du Perron, with his il-
liberal reflexions on fome of the learned members of the Univerfity of
Oxford^ extorted from him a letter, in the French language, which has
been admired for accurate criticifm, jufl: fatire, and elegant compofition.
A regard for the literary reputation of his country, induced him to
tranflate, from a Perfian original into French^ the life of Nadir Shah,
that it might fiot be carried out of England, with a refle6lion, that no
perfon had been found in the Britifh dominions capable of tranflating
it. The fludents of Perjtan literature muft ever be grateful to him,
for a grammar of that language, in which he has fhown the poffibility
of combining tafte, and elegance, with the precifion of a grammarian;
and every admirer of Arabkk poetry, muft acknowledge his obligations
to him, for an E7iglijh verfion of the icv^n celebrated poems, fo well
known by the name of Moallakat, from the diftindion to which their
excellence had entitled them, of being fufpended in the temple of
Mecca : I (hould fcarcely think it of importance to mention, that he
did not difdain the office of Editor of a Sanfcrit and Perfian work, if
it did not afford me an opportunity of adding, that the latter was
publifhed at his own expence, and was fold for the benefit of in-
folvent debtors. A fimilar application was made of the produce of the
SiRAJIYAH.
Of
[ viii i
Of his lighter produftions, the elegant amufements of his leifure
hours, comprehending hymns on the Hindu mythology, poems confift-
ing chiefly of tranflations from the AJiatick languages, and the verfion
of Sacontala, an ancient Indian drama, it would be unbecoming to
fpeak in a ftyle of importance which he did not himfelf annex to them.
They fhow the aftivity of a vigorous mind, its fertility, its genius,
and its tafte. Nor fhall 1 particularly dwell on the difcourfes addrefTed
to this Society, which we have all perufed or heard, or on the other
learned and interefling diflertations, which form fo large, and valuable
a portion of the records of our Refearches ; let us lament, that the
fpirit which didated them is to us extind, and that the voice to
which we liftened with improvement, and rapture, will be heard by us
no more.
But I cannot pafs over a paper, which has fallen into my pofleffion
fince his demife, in the hand-writing of Sir William Jones himfelf,
entitled Desiderata, as more explanatory than any thing I can fay,
of the comprehenfive views of his enlightened mind. It contains, as
a perufal of it will (how, whatever is mofl: curious, important, and at-
tainable in the fciences and hiftories of India, Arabia, China, and Tar-
tary ; fubjefts, which he had already mofl amply difcuffed in the dif-
quifitions which he laid before the Society.
DESIDERATA.
INDIA.
I. — The Ancient Geography of India, &c. from the Puranas.
2. — A Botanical Defcription of Indian Plants, from the Cofhas, &c.
^. — A Grammar of the Sanfcrit Language, from Panini, &c.
4. — A Diftionary of the Sanfcrit Language, from thirty-two original
Vocabularies and Nirufti.
5— On
[ ix ]
5. — On the Ancient Mufic of the Indians.
6. — On the Medical Subftances of India, and the Indian Art of
Medicine.
7. — On the Philofophy of the Ancient Indians.
8. — A Tranflation of the Veda.
9. — On Ancient Indian Geometry, Aftronomy, and Algebra.
10. — A Tranflation of the Puranas.
II. — A Tranflation of the Mahabbarat and Ramayan.
12. — On the Indian Theatre, &c. &c. &c.
13. — On the Indian Conftellations, with their Mythology, from the
Puranas.
14. — The Hiftory of India before the Mahommedan conqueft, from
the Sanfcrit-Cafhmir Hifl:ories.
ARABIA.
15. — The Hiflory of Arabia before Mahommed.
J 6. — A Tranflation of the Hamafa.
17. — A Tranflation of Hariri.
18. — A Tranflation of the Facahatul Khulafa-
Of the Cafiah.
PERSIA.
19. — The Hifl:ory of Perfia from Authorities in Sanfcrit, Arabick,
Greek, Turkifh, Perfian, ancient and modern.
Firdaufi's Khofrau nama.
20. — The five Poems of Nizami, tranflated in profe.
A Didlionary of pure Perfian. Jehangire.
CHINA.
2 1 . — A Tranflation of the Shi-kins.
22. — The text of Can-fu-tfu verbally tranflated.
VOL. I. C TARTARY.
[ X ]
TARTARY.
23. — A Hiftory of the Tartar Nations, chiefly of the Moguls and
Othmans, from the Turkifli and Perfian.
We are not authorifed to conclude, that he had himfelf formed a
determination to complete the works which his genius and knowledge
had thus Iketched ; the tafk feems to require a period, beyond the pro-
bable duration of any human life ; but we, who had the happinefs to
know Sir William Jones, who were witnefles of his indefatigable per-
feverance in the purfuit of knowledge, and of his ardour to accomplifh
"whatever he deemed important ; who faw the extent of his intelle61ual
powers, his wonderful attainments in literature and fcience, and the
facility with which all his compofitions were made, cannot doubt, if
it had pleafed Providence to protraft the date of his exiftence, that
he would have ably executed much, of what he had fo extenfively
planned.
I have hitherto principally confined my difcourfe to the purfuits of
our late Prefident in Oriental literature, which, from their extent, might
appear to have occupied all his time ; but they neither precluded his
attention to profeffional ftudies, nor to fcience in general : amongft his
publications in Europe, in polite literature, exclufive of various com-
pofitions in profe and verfe, I find a tranflation of the fpeeches of
IsjEUS, with a learned comment ; and, in law, an Effay on the Law of
Bailments : upon the fubjeft of this laft work, I cannot deny myfelf the
gratification of quoting the fentiments of a celebrated hiflorian : " Sir
" William Jones has given an ingenious and rational eflay on the law
** of Bailments. He is perhaps the only lawyer equally converfant with
" the
[ xi ]
" the year books of Wejiminjler, the commentaries of Ulpian, the
" Attic pleadings of Is^EUS, and the fentences of Arabian and Perfian
" Cadhis."
His profeffional fludies did not commence before his twenty-fecond
year, and I have his own authority for aflerting, that the firft book of
Englijh jurifprudence which he ever fludied, was Fortescue's eflay ia
praife of the laws of England.
Of the ability and confcientious integrity, with which he difcharged
the fundions of a Magiftrate, and the duties of a Judge of the Supreme
Court of Judicature in this fettlement, the public voice and public re-
gret bear ample and merited teftimony. The fame penetration which
marked his fcientific refearches, diftinguilhed his legal inveftigations and
decifions ; and he deemed no inquiries burthenfome, which had for their
obje6l fubftantial juftice under the rules of law.
His addreffes to the jurors, are not lefs diftinguillied for philanthropy,
and liberality of fentiment, than for juft expofitions of the law, per-
fpicuity, and elegance of didlion ; and his oratory was as captivating as
his arguments were convincing.
In an epilogue to his commentaries on Afiatick poetry, he bids farewell
to polite literature, without relinquifhing his afFedlion for it ; and con-
cludes with an intimation of his intention to ftudy law, exprelTed in a
wifh, which we now know to have been prophetic.
Mihi fit, oro, non inutilis toga.
Nee indiferta lingua, nee turpis manus !
c 2 I have
[ xii ]
1 have already enumerated attainments and works, which, from their
diverfity and extent, feem far beyond the capacity of the moft enlarged
minds ; but "the catalogue may yet be augmented. To a proficiency in
the languages of Greece, Rome, and jijia, he added the knowledge of the
philofophy of thofe countries, and of every thing curious and valuable
that had been taught in them. The dcxStrines of the Academy, the
Lyceum, or the Portico, were not more familiar to him than the tenets
of the Vedas, the myflicifm of the Siifis, or the religion of the ancient
Perjians; and whilfl: with a kindred genius he perufed with rapture
the heroic, lyric, or moral compofitions, of the moft renowned poets of
Greece, Rome, and AJia, he could turn with equal delight and know-
ledge, to the fublime fpeculations, or mathematical calculations, of
Barrow and Newton. With them alfo, he profefTed his convi6tioa
of the truth of the Chrijlian religion, and he juftly deemed it no incon-
iiderable advantage, that his refearches had corroborated the multiplied
evidence of revelation, by confirming the Mojaic account of the pri-
mitive world. We all recoiled, and can refer to, the following fen-
timents in his eighth anniverfary difcourfe.
** Theological inquiries are no part of my prefent fubjedl: ; but I can-
" not refrain from adding, that the colle6tion of tra61s, which we call
" from their excellence the Scriptures, contain, independently of a di-
" vine origin, more true fublimity, more exquifite beauty, purer mo-
" rality, more important hiftory, and finer ftrains both of poetry and
*' eloquence, than could be colle6led within the fame compafs from all
" other books, that were ever compofed in any age, or in any idiom.
" The two parts, of which the Scriptures confift, arc conneded by a
" chain of compofitions, which bear no refemblance in form or fl-yle
" to any that can be produced from the flores of Grecian,. Indian, Perfian,
" or even Arabian learning j the antiquity of thole compofitions no
[ xili ]
" man doubts, and the unftrained application of them to events long
" fubfequent to their publication, is a folid ground of belief, that they
" were genuine predidions, and confequently infpired."
There were in truth few fciences, in which he had not acquired con-
fiderable proficiency ; in moft, his knowledge was profound. The
theory of mufic was familiar to him ; nor had he neglefted to make
himfelf acquainted with the interefting difcoveries lately made in chy-
miftry ; and I have heard him affert, that his admiration of the ftruc-
ture of the human frame, had induced him to attend for a feafon to a
courfe of anatomical lectures delivered by his friend, the celebrated
Hunter.
His laft and favourite purfuit, was the fludy of Botany, which he
originally began under the confinement of a fevcre and lingering dif-
order, which with moft minds, would have proved a dilqualification
from any application. It conftituted the principal amufement of his
leifure hours. In the arrangements of Linn.s;us he difcovered fyftem,
truth, and fcience, which never failed to captivate and engage his at-
tention; and from the proofs which he has exhibited of his progrels in
Botany, we may conclude that he would have extended the difcoveries
in that fcience. The laft compofition which he read in this Society,
was a defcription of fele6i: Indian plants, and I hope his Executors will
allow us to fulfil his intention of publifhing it,, as a number in our
Refearches.
It cannot be deemed ufelefs or fuperfluous to inquire, by what arts
or method he was enabled to attain to a deo-ree of knowledge almoft
univerfal, and apparently beyond the powers of man, during a life little
exceeding forty-feven years.
The
[ xiv ]
The faculties of his mind, by nature vigorous, were improved by
conftant exercife ; and his memory, by habitual pradice, had acquired
a capacity of retaining whatever had once been imprefled upon it. To
an unextinguiflied ardour for univerfal knowledge, he joined a perfe-
verancein the purfuit of it, which fubdued all obftacles; his ftudies
beo-an with the dawn, and during the intermiflions of profeffional duties,
were continued throughout the day ; reflexion and meditation ftrength-
ened and confirmed what induftry and inveftigation had accumulated.
It was a fixed principle with him, from which he never voluntarily
deviated, not to be deterred by any difficulties that were furmountable,
from profecuting to a fuccefsful termination, what he had once deli-
berately undertaken.
But what appears to me more particularly to have enabled him to
employ his talents fo much to his own and the public advantage, was
the reo-ular allotment of his time to particular occupations, and a fcru-
pulous adherence to the diftribution which he had fixed ; hence, all his
ftudies were purfued without interruption or confufion : nor can I here
omit remarking, what may probably have attrafted your obfervation as
well as mine, the candour and complacency with which he gave his at-
tention to all perfons, of whatfoever quality, talents, or education ; he
iuftly concluded, that curious or important information, might be
o-ained even from the illiterate ; and wherever it was to be obtained,
he fousrht and feized it.
Of the private and fecial virtues of our lamented Prefident, our
hearts are the beft records ; to you, who knew him, it cannot be ne-
ceflary for me to expatiate on the independance of his integrity, his
humanity, probity, or benevolence, which every living creature par-
ticipated ; on the affability of his converfation and manners, or his
modcft unaffuming deportment : nor need I remark, that he was
totally
[ XV ]
totally free from pedantry, as well as from arrogance and felf-fuffi-
ciency, which fometimes accompany and difgrace the greateft abihties ;
his prefence was the delight of every fociety, which his converfa-
tion exhilarated and improved ; and the public have not only to lament
the lofs of his talents and abilities, but that of his example.
To him, as the founder of our Inftitution, and whilft he lived, its firmeft
fupport, our reverence is more particularly due ; inftrufled, animated,
and encouraged by him, genius was called forth into exertion, and
modeft merit was excited to diftinguifh itfelf. Anxious for the reputa-
tion of the Society, he was indefatigable in his own endeavours to
promote it, whilft he cheerfully affifted thofe of others. In lofmg
him, we have not only been deprived of our brighteft ornament, but
of a guide and patron, on whofe inftru6lions, judgment, and candour,
we could implicitly rely.
But it will, I truft, be long, very long, before the remembrance of
his virtues, his genius, and abilities, iofe that influence over the mem-
bers of this Society, which his living example had maintained ; and
if previous to his demife he had been alked, by what pofthumous
honours or attentions we could beft fhow our refpedl: for his me-
mory ? I may venture to afTert he would have replied, " By exerting
" yourfelves to fupport the credit of the Society ;" applying to it, per-
haps, the dying wifh of father Paul, " efto perpetua !"
In this wifh we muft all concur, and with it, I clofe t/ois addrefs
to you.
A
DISCOURSE
ON THE
IJV^STITUTIOJ^ OF A SOCIETY,
FOR INaUISING INTO THE
HISTORY, CIVIL and NATURAL,
The antiquities, ARTS, SCIENCES, and LITERATURE,
OP
ASIA.
By the PRESIDENT.
GENTLEMEN,
VV HEN I Avas at fea laft Augufl, on my voyage to this country,
which I had long and ardently defired to vifit, I found one evening,
on inlpeding the obfervations of the day, that Ltdia lay before us, and
Perjia on our left, whilfi; a breeze from Arabia blew nearly on our
flern. A fituation fo pleafing in itfelf, and to me fo new, could not
fail to awaken a train of reflexions in a mind, which had early been
accuftomed to contemplate with delight the eventful hiftories and
agreeable fidions of this eaflern world. It gave me inexpreflible plea-
voL. I. D furc
2 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.
fure to find myfelf in the midft of fo noble an amphitheatre, ahuofl
encircled by the vaft regions of Afia, which has ever been eflieemed
the nurfe of fciences, the inventrefs of delightful and ufeful arts, the
fcene of o-lorious adions, fertile in the produftions of human genius,
aboundino- in natural wonders, and infinitely diverfified in the forms of
relio-ion and government, in the laws, manners, cuftoms, and lan-
o-uaees, as well as in the features and complexions, of men. I could
not help remarking, how important and extenfive a field was yet un-
explored, and how many folid advantages unimproved ; and when I
confidered, with pain, that, in this fluftuating, imperfeft, and limited
condition of life, fuch inquiries and improvements could only be made
by the united efforts of many, who are not eafily brought, without
fome preffing inducement or ftrong impulfe, to converge in a common
point, I confoled myfelf with a hope, founded on opinions which it
might have the appearance of flattery to mention, that, if in any
country or community, fuch an union could be efFeded, it was among
my countrymen in Bengal^ with fome of whom I already had, and
with moft was defirous of having, the pleafure of being intimately
acquainted.
You have realized that hope, gentlemen, and even anticipated a
declaration of my wifhes, by your alacrity in laying the foundation of
a fociety for inquiring into the hiftory and antiquities, the natural
produ6tions, arts, fciences, and literature of Afia. I may confidently
foretel, that an inftitution fo likely to afford entertainment, and con-
vey knowledge, to mankind, will advance to maturity by flow, yet
certain, degrees ; as the Royal Society, which at firft was only a
meeting of a few literary friends at Oxford, rofe gradually to that
fplendid zenith, at which a Halley was their fecretary, and a Newton
their prefident.
Although
TIJE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 3
Although it is my humble opinion, that, in order to enfure our fuc-
cefs and permanence, we muft keep a middle courfe between a languid
remilTnefs, and an over zealous a6livity, and that the tree, which you
have aulpicioufly planted, will produce fairer bloflToms, and more ex-
quifite fruit, if it be not at firft expofed to too great a glare of fun-
fliine, yet I take the liberty of fubmitting to your confideration a few
general ideas on the plan of our fociety ; affuring you, that, whether
you rejeft or approve them, your corre6tion will give me both pleafure
and inftruftion, as your flattering attentions have already conferred on
me the highefl honour.
It is your defign, T conceive, to take an ample fpace for your learned
inveftigations, bounding them only by the geographical limits oi AJia\
fo that, confidering Hindujian as a centre, and turning your eyes in
idea to the North, you have on your right, many important kingdoms
in the Eaftern peninfula, the ancient and wonderful empire of China
with all her Tartarian dependencies, and that of Japan, with the
clufler of precious iflands, in which many fmgular curiofities have too
long been concealed : before you lies that prodigious chain of moun-
tains, which formerly perhaps were a barrier againft the violence of
the fea, and beyond them the very interefting country of Tibet, and
the vaft regions of Tartary, from which, as from the Trojan horfe of
the poets, have iffued fo many confummate warriors, whofe domain
has extended at leaft from the banks of the Ilijfus to the mouths of the
Ganges : on your left are the beautiful and celebrated provinces oi Iran
o\- Perfia, the unmeafured, and perhaps unmeafurable deferts oi Ara-
bia, and the once flourifliing kingdom of Yemen, with the pleafant ifles
that the Arabs have fubdued or colonized ; and farther weftward, the
Afiattck dominions of the Turkiflo fultans, whofe moon feems approach-
ing rapidly to its wane. — By this great circumference, the field of your
uleful refearches will be inclofed ; but, fince Egypt had unqueftionably
D 2 an
4 THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.
an old connexion with this country, if not with China, ^mce. the lan-
guage and literature of the AhyJJinians bear a manifeft affinity to thofe
of Ajia, lince the Arabian arms prevailed along the African coail: of
the Mediterranean, and even ercfted a powerful dynafty on the conti-
nent of jE«ri?/>(', you may not be difplcafed occafionally to follow the
ftreams oi AJiatick learning a little beyond its natural boundary ; and,
if it be nccelfary or convenient, that a Ihort name or epithet be given
to our ibciety, in order to diflingullh it in the world, that oi AJiatick
appears both claflical and proper, whether we confider the j)lace or
the object of the inftitution, and preferable to Oriental, which is in
truth a word merely relative, and, though commonly uled in Europe^
conveys no very diftinft idea.
If now it be aflccd, what are the intended obie6Is of our inquiries
within thefe fj)acious limits, we anfwer, MAN and NATURE ;
whatever is performed by the one, or produced by the other. Human
knowledo^e has been cle2:antly analvlcd accordinsr to the three grreat
faculties of the mind, memory, reafon, and imagination, which we con-
fbantly find employed in arranging and retaining, comparing and dil-
tinguidiing, combining and diverhfying, the ideas, which we receive
through our fenfes, or acquire by rcflcftion ; hence the three main
branches of learning are hijlory, fcience, and art : the firft comprehends
cither an account of natural produftions, or the genuine records of
empires and flates ; the fecond embraces the whole circle of pure and
mixed mathematicks, together with ethicks and law, as far as they
depend on the reafonlng faculty ; and the third includes all the beauties
of imagery and the charms of invention, dil'played in modulated lan-
guage, or reprefented by colour, figure, or lound.
Agreeably to this analyfis, you will inveftigate whatever is rare in
the ftupendous fabrick of nature, will corred the geography of Ajia
bv
TFIE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, 5
by new obfervations and difcoveries ; will trace the annals, and even
traditions, of thole nations, who from time to time have peopled or
defolated it ; and will bring to light their various forms of government,
with their inftitutions civil and religious ; you will examine their im-
provements and methods in arithmetick and geometry, in trigonometry,
menfuration, mechanicks, opticks, aftronomy, and general phyficks ;
their fyftems of morality, grammar, rhetorick, and dialedick ; their
fkill in chirurgery and medicine, and their advancement, whatever it
may be, in anatomy and chymiftry. To this you will add relearches
into their agriculture, manufadures, trade ; and, whilft you inquire
with pleafure into their mufick, archite6ture, painting, and poetry,
will not negleft thofe inferiour arts, by which the comforts and even
elegances of focial life are fupplied or improved. You may obferve,
that I have omitted their languages, the diverfity and difficulty of
which are a fad obftacle to the progrefs of ufeful knowledge ; but I
have ever confidered languages as the mere inftruments of real learn-
ing, and think them improperly confounded with learning itfelf : the
attainment of them is, however, indifpenfably neceflary ; and if to the
Per/ian, Armenian, Turki/lj, and Arabick, could be added not only the
Sanfcrit, the treafures of which we may now hope to fee unlocked, but
even the Chinefe, Tartarian, Japanefe, and the various infular diale6ts,
an immenfe mine would then be open, in which we might labour
with equal delight and advantage.
Having fubmitted to you thefe imperfect thoughts on the limits and
objeBs of our future fociety, I requefl your permiflion to add a icw
hints on the conduct of it in its prefent immature flate.
LuciAN begins one of his fatirical pieces againfl hiftorians, with
declaring that the only true propofition in his work was, that it fhould
contain nothing true ; and perhaps it may be advifable at firfi:, in
order
d THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.
order to prevent any difFerence of lentiment on particular points not
immediately before us, to eftablifh but one rule, namely, to have no
rules at all. This only I mean, that, in the infancy of any fociety,
there ought to be no confinement, no trouble, no expenfe, no unne-
celTary formality. Let us, if you pleale, for the prefent, have weekly
evening meetings in this hall, for the purpoie of hearing original
papers read on fuch fubjecls, as fall within the circle of our inquiries.
J^ct all curious and learned men be invited to fend their trafts to our
fecretary, for which they ought immediately to receive our thanks ;
and if, towards the end of each year, we fhould bg fupplied with a
fufficiency of valuable materials to fill a volume, let us prefent our
Afiatick mifcellany to the literary world, who have derived fo much
pleafure and information from the agreeable work of Kcempfer, than
which we can fcarce propofe a better model, that they will accept
with eagernefs any frefh entertainment of the fame kind. You will
not perhaps be difpofed to admit mere tranflations of confiderable
length, except of fuch unpiiblifhed effays or treatifes as may be tranf-
mitted to us by native authors ; but, whether you will enrol as mem-
bers any number of learned natives, you will hereafter decide, with
many other queftions as they happen to arife ; and you will think, I
prefume, that all queftions fhould be decided on a ballot, by a majority
of two thirds, and that nine members fhould be requifite to conftitute
a board for fuch decifions. Thefe points, however, and all others I
fubmit entirely, gentlemen, to your determination, having neither wifh
nor pretenfion to claim any more than my fingle right of fufFrage.
One thing only, as elTential to your dignity, 1 recommend with ear-
neftnefs, on no account to admit a new member, who has not exprefTed
a voluntary defire to become fo; and in that cafe, you will not require,
I fuppofe, any other qualification than a love of knowledge, and a zeal
for the promotion of it.
Your
THE PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. 7
Your inftitution, I am perfuaded, will ripen of itfelf, and your
meetings will be amply fupplied with interefting and amufing papers,
as foon as the obje6l of your inquiries fhall be generally known.
There are, it may not be delicate to name them, but there are many,
from whofe important fludies I cannot but conceive high expeftations ;
and, as far as mere labour will avail, 1 fincerely promife, that, if in
my allotted fphere of jurifprudence, or in any intelle6tual excurfion,
that I may have leifure to make, I fhould be fo fortunate as to coUeft,
by accident, either fruits or flowers, which may feem valuable or
pleafuig, I fhall offer my humble Nezr to your fociety with as much
refpedful zeal as to the greateft potentate on earth.
THE SECOND
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE,
DELIVERED 24 FEBRUARY, 1785,
BT
The president.
GENTLEMEN,
J. F the Deity of the Hindus, by whom all their juft requefts are be-
lieved to be granted with fingular indulgence, had propofed laft year
to gratify my warmeft wifhes, 1 could have defired nothing more ar-
dently than the fuccefs of your inftitution ; becaufe I can defire nothing
in preference to the general good, which your plan feems calculated
to promote, by bringing to light many ufeful and interefting trads,
which, being too fhort for feparate publication, might lie many years
concealed, or, perhaps, irrecoverably perifh : my wifhes are accom-
plifhed, without an invocation to Ca'madhe'nu; and your Society,
having already paffed its infant ftate, is advancing to maturity with
every mark of a healthy and robuft conflitution. When I refledt, in-
deed, on the variety of fubje6ts, which have been difcufled before you,
concerning the hiftory, laws, manners, arts, and antiquities of AJia^
I am unable to decide whether my pleafure or my furprife be the
VOL. I. E greater ;
10 THE PRESIDENT'S SECOND
greater ; for I will not difTemble, that your progrefs has far exceeded
my expedations ; and, though we mufl: ferioufly deplore the lofs of
thofe excellent men, who have lately departed from this Capital, yet
there is a profped ftill of large contributions to your flock of Afiatick
learning, which, I am perfuaded, will continually increafe. My late
journey to Benares has enabled me to alfure you, that many of your
members, who refide at a diftance, employ a part of their leifure in
preparing additions to your archives ; and, unlefs I am too fanguine,
you will foon receive light from them on feveral topicks entirely new
in the republick of letters.
It was principally with a defign to open fources of fuch information,
that I long had meditated an expedition up the Ganges during the fuf-
penfion of my bufinefs ; but, although I had the fatisfa6lion of vifiting
two ancient feats of Hindu fuperftition and literature, yet, illnefs hav-
ing detained me a confiderable time in the way, it was not in my
power to continue in them long enough to purfue my inquiries j and I
left them, as ^neas is feigned to have left the fhades, when his
guide made him recoiled the fwift flight of irrevocable time, with a
curiofity raifed to the height, and a regret not eafy to be defcribed.
Whoever travels in Afia, efpecially if he be converfant with the
literature of the countries through which he paffes, muft naturally re-
mark the fuperiority of European talents : the obfervation, indeed, is
at leaft as old as Alexander ; and, though we cannot agree with the
fage preceptor of that ambitious Prince, that "the Afiaticks are born to
be flaves," yet the Athenian poet feems perfe6lly in the right, when he
reprefents Europe as a fovereign Princefs, and Afla as her Handmaid:
but, if the miftrefs be tranfcendently majeftick, it cannot be denied
that the attendant has many beauties, and fome advantages peculiar to
herfelf. The ancients were accuflomed to pronounce panegyricks on
their
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE. 1 1
their own countrymen at the expenfe of all other nations, with a po-
litical view, perhaps, of ftimulating them by praife, and exciting them
to ftill greater exertions ; but fuch arts are here unnecefTary ; nor
would they, indeed, become a fociety, who feek nothing but truth
unadorned by rhetorick ; and, although we muft be confcious of our
fuperior advancement in all kinds of ufeful knowledge, yet we ought
not therefore to contemn the people of ^a, from whofe refearches
into nature, works of art, and inventions of fancy, many valuable
hints may be derived for our own improvement and advantage. If
that, indeed, were not the principal objedt: of your inftitution, little
elfe could arife from it but the mere gratification of curiofity ; and I
fhould not receive fo much delis^ht from the humble fhare, which vou
have allowed me to take, in promoting it.
To form an exa6l parallel between the works and adtions of the
Weftern and Eaftern worlds, would require a traft of no inconfiderable
length ; but we may decide on the whole, that reafon and tafte are
the grand prerogatives of European minds, while the Afiaticks have
foared to loftier heights in the Iphere of imagination. The civil hif-
tory of their vaft empires, and of India in particular, mufl: be highly
interefting to our common country ; but we have a ftill nearer intereft
in knowing all former modes of ruling thefe inejlhnable provifices, on
the profperity of which fo much of our national welfare, and individual
benefit, feems to depend. A minute geographical knowledge, not only
of Bengal and Bahar, but, for evident reafons, of all the kingdoms bor-
dering on them, is clofely conne6ted with an account of their many
revolutions : but the natural produ6lions of thefe territories, efpecially
in the vegetable and mineral fvftems, are momentous obje6ls of refearch
to an imperial, but, which is a charader of equal dignity, a com-
mercial., people.
E 2 If
12 THE PRESIDENT'S SECOND
If Botany may be defcribed by metaphors drawn from the fcience
itfelf, we may juflly pronounce a minute acquaintance with plants^
their claffes, orders, kinds, and /pedes, to be its flowers, which can
only produce fruit by an application of that knowledge to the purpofes
of life, particularly to diet, by which difeafes may be avoided, and to
medicine, by which they may be remedied : for the improvement of
the laft mentioned art, than which none furely can be more beneficial
to mankind, the virtues of minerals alfo fhould be accurately known.
So highly has medical Ikill been prized by the ancient Indians, that
one of the fourteen Retna's, or precious things, which their Gods are
believed to have produced by churning the ocean with the mountain
Mandara, was a learned phyfician. What their old books contain on
this fubje61, we ought certainly to difcover, and that without lofs of
time ; left the venerable but abftrufe language, in which they are
compofed, fliould ceafe to be perfectly intelligible, even to the beft
educated natives, through a want of powerful invitation to ftudy it.
Bernier, who was himfelf of the Faculty, mentions approved medical
books in Sanfcrit, and cites a few aphorifms, which appear judicious and
rational ; but we can expeft nothing fo important from the works of
Hindu or Mifelman phyficians, as the knowledge, which experience muft
have given them, oi fimple medicines. I have feen an Indian prefcrip-
tion oi fifty -four, and another oi fixtyfix, ingredients ; but fuch com-
pofitions are always to be fufpefted, fince the efFeft of one ingredient
may deftroy that of another ; and it were better to find certain ac-
counts of a fingle leaf or berry, than to be acquainted with the moft
elaborate compounds, unlefs they too have been proved by a multitude
of fuccefsful experiments. The noble deobftruent oil, extracted from
the Eranda nut, the whole family of Balfams, the incomparable fto-
machick root from Columho, the fine aftringent ridiculoufly called
Japan earth, but in truth produced by the deco£lion of an Bidian plant,
have long been ufcd in Jfia ; and who can foretel what glorious dif-
coveries
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE. 13
coveries of other oils, roots, and falutary juices, may be made by your
fociety ? If it be doubtful whether the Peruvian bark be always effi-
cacious in this country, its place may, perhaps, be fupplied by fome
indigenous vegetable equally antifeptick, and more congenial to the
climate. Whether any treatifes on Agriculture have been written by
experienced natives of thefe provinces, I am not yet informed ; but
fince the court of Spain expeft to find ufeful remarks in an Arabick
traft preferved in the Efcurial, on the cultivation of land in that kingdom,
we fhould inquire for fimilar compofitions, and examine the contents
of fuch as we can procure.
The fublime fcience of Chymiflry, which I was on the point of
calling divine, muft be added, as a key to the richeft treafuries of na-
ture ; and it is impoflible to forefee how greatly it may improve our
manufaBures, efpecially if it can fix thofe brilliant dyes^ which want
nothing of perfe61; beauty but a longer continuance of their fplendourj
or how far it may lead to new methods oi jluxing and cotnpounding me-
tals, which the Indians, as well as the Chinefe, are thought to have
praftifed in higher perfe6lion than ourfelves.
In thofe elegant arts, which are called^«^ and liberal, though of lefs
general utility than the labours of the mechanick, it is really wonderful
how much a fingle nation has excelled the whole world : I mean the
ancient Greeks, whole Sculpture, of which we have exquifite remains
both on gems and in marble, no modern tool can equal ; whofe Archi-
teSlure we can only imitate at a fervile diftance, but are unable to
make one addition to it, without deftroying its graceful iimplicity j
whole Poetry ftill delights us in youth, and amules us at a matiu'er
age J and of whofe Painting and Mujick we have the concurrent rela-
tions of fo many grave authors, that it would be ftrange incredulity to
doubt their excellence. Painting, as an art belonging to the powers
of
1 4 THE PRESIDENT'S SECOND
of the imagination, or what is commonly called Genius, appears to be
yet in its infancy among the people of the Eaft : but the Hindu fyftem
of mufick has, I believe, been formed oia truer principles than our
own ; and all the Ikill of the native compofers is direfted to the
great objeft of their art, the natural exprejion of Jirong pajjions, to
which melody, indeed, is often facrificed : though fome of their tunes
are pleafing even to an European ear. Nearly the fame may be truly
alFerted of the Arabian or Perjian lyflem ; and, by a correct explana-
tion of the beft books on that fubjeft, much of the old Grecian theory
may probably be recovered.
The poetical works of the Arabs and Perjians, which differ fur-
prifingly in their flyle and form, are here pretty generally known ;
and, though taftes, concerning which there can be no difputing, are
divided in regard to their merit, yet we may fafely fay of them, what
Abulfazl pronounces of the Mahdbhdrat, that, " although they
" abound with extravagant images and defcriptions, they are in the
" higheft desrree entertainino- and inflruftive." Poets of the greateft
COO o
genius, Pindar, ^schylus, Dante, Petrarca, Shakespear,
Spenser, have moft abounded in images not far from the brink of
abfurdity ; but, if their luxuriant fancies, or thofe of Abulola, Fir-
dausi, Niza^mi, were pruned away at the hazard of their ftrength
and majefl:y, we fhould lofe many pleafures by the amputation. If
we may form a jufl: opinion of the Sanfcrit poetry from the fpecimens
already exhibited, (though we can only judge perfe6tly by confulting the
originals), we cannot but thirft for the whole work of Vya'sa, with
which a member of our focicty, whofe prefence deters me from faying
more of him, will in due time gratify the publick. The poetry of
Mathura, which is the Parnajfian land of the Hindus, has a fofter and
lefs elevated flrain ; but, fince the inhabitants of the diftricls near
Agra, and principally of the Duab^ are faid to furpafs all other Indians
in
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE. 15
in eloquence, and to have compofed many agreeable tales and love-
fbngs, which are ftill extant, the Bhajhd, or vernacular idiom of Vraja,
in which they are written, fhould not be negle6led. No fpecimens of
genuine Oratory can be expefted from nations, among whom the form
of government precludes even the idea of popular eloquence; but the
art of writing, in elegant and modulated periods, has been cultivated
in ^Jia from the earlieft ages : the Veda^s^ as well as the Alcoran, are
written iu meafured profe ; and the compofitions of Isocrates are
not more highly pollfhed than thofe of the beft Arabian and Perjian
authors.
Of the Hindu and Mufelman architedure there are yet many noble
remains in Bahar, and fome in the vicinity of Malda; nor am I un-
willing to believe, that even thofe ruins, of which you will, I truft, be
prefented with correal delineations, may furnifh our own architefts
with new ideas of beauty and fublimity.
Permit me now to add a few words on the Sciences, properly fo
named ; in which it muft be admitted, that the AJiaticks, if com-
pared with our Weftern nations, are mere children. One of the mofl
fagacious men in this age, who continues, I hope, to improve and
adorn it, Samuel Johnson, remarked in my hearing, that, " if
" Newton had tlourifhed in ancient Greece, he would have been
" worfhipped as a divinity :" how zealoufly then would he be adored
in Hindujlan, if his incomparable writings could be read and compre-
hended by the Pandits of Cajhmir or Benares I I have feen a mathema-
tical book in Sanfcrit of the higheft antiquity ; but foon perceived from
the diagrams, that it contained only fimple elements : there may, in-
deed, have been, iu the favourable atmofphere of Afia, fome diligent
obfervers of the celeltlal bodies, and fuch obfervations, as are re-
corded, fliould indifputably be made publick ; but let us not expe6l
any
1 0 THE PRESIDENT'S SECOND
any new methods, or the analyfis of new curves, from the geometricians
of Iran, Turkijlan, or India. Could the works of Archimedes, the
Newton of Sicily, be reftored to their genuine purity by the help of
Arabick verfions, we might then have reafon to triumph on the fuccefs
of our fcientifical inquiries ; or could the fucceffive improvements and
various rules of Algebra be traced through Arabian channels, to which
Cardan boafted that he had accefs, the modern Hiflory of Mathema-
ticks would receive confiderable illuftration.
The Jurifprudence of the Hindus and Mufelmans will produce more
immediate advantage ; and, if feme ftandard laiv-traSis were accu-
rately tranflated from the Sanfcrit and Arabick, we might hope in time
to fee fo complete a Digeft of Indian Laws, that all difputes among
the natives might be decided without uncertainty, which is in
truth a difgrace, though fatirically called a glory^ to the forenfick
fcience.
All thefe obje6ls of inquiry mull: appear to you. Gentlemen, in fo
ftrong a light, that bare intimations of them will be fufficient ; nor is
it neceffary to make ufe of emulation as an incentive to an ardent pur-
fuit of them : yet I cannot forbear expreffing a wifh, that the adivity
of the French in the fame purfuits may not be fuperior to ours, and
that the refearches of M. Sonnerat, whom the court of Verfailles
employed for feven years in thefe climates, merely to colleft fuch ma-
terials as we are feeking, may kindle, inftead of abating, our own
curiofity and zeal. If you affent, as I flatter myfelf you do, to
thefe opinions, you will alfo concur in promoting the objeft of
them ; and a few ideas having prefented themfelves to my mind, I
prefume to lay them before you, with an entire fubmiflion to your
judgement.
No
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE. \y
No contributions, except thoie of the literary kind, will be requifite
for the fupport of the fociety ; but, if each of us were occafionaliy to
contribute a fuccindl defcription of fuch manufcripts as he had perufed
or infpe6led, with their dates and the names of their owners, and to
propofe for folution fuch quejlions as had occurred to him concerning
Afiatick Art, Science, and Hiflory, natural or civil, we Ihould poffefe
without labour, and almoft by imperceptible degrees, a fuller catalogue
of Oriental books, than has hitherto been exhibited, and our corre-
fpondents would be apprifed of thofe points, to which we chiefly direft
our inveftigations. Much may, I am confident, be expeded from the
communications of learned natives^ whether lawyers, phyficians, or
private fcholars, who would eagerly, on the firft invitation, fend us
their Mekdmdt and Rifdlahs on a variety of fubjefts ; fome for the fake
of advancing general knowledge, but mofl of them from a delire,
neither uncommon nor unreafonable, of attra6i:ing notice, and recom-
mending themfelves to favour. With a view to avail ourfelves of this
difpofition, and to bring their latent fcience under our infpeftion, it
might be advifable to print and circulate a fhort memorial, in Perjian
and Hindi, fetting forth, in a ftyle accommodated to their own habits
and prejudices, the defign of our inftitution ; nor would it be impoffiblc
hereafter, to give a medal annually, with infcriptions, in Perfian o\\
one fide, and on the reverfe in Sanfcrit, as the prize of merit, to the
writer of the beft efTay or diflertation. To infl:ru6l others is the pre-
fcribed duty of learned Brahmans, and, if they be men of fubflance,
without reward ; but they would all be flattered with an honorary
mark of diftindion ; and the Mahomedans have not only the permiffion,
but the pofitive command, of their law-giver, to Jearch for learning
even in the remotejl parts of the globe. It were fuperfluous to fuggeft,
with how much corrednefs and facility their compofitlons might be
tranflated for our ufc, hnce their languages are now more generally
VOL. I. F and
18
and perfectly underftood than they have ever been by any nation of
Europe.
I have detamed you, I fear, too long by this addrefs, though it has
been my endeavour to reconcile comprehenfivenefs with brevity : the
fubjeds, which I have lightly Iketched, would be found, if minutely
examined, to be inexhauftible ; and, fnice no limits can be fet to
your refearches but the boundaries of yifia itfelf, I may not impro-
perly conclude with wifhing for your fociety, what the Commentator
on the Laws, prays for the conflitution, of our country, that it may
BE PERPETUAL,
THE
THE THIRD
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE,
DELIVERED 2 FEBRUARY, 1786-
BY
The president.
JLN the former difcourfes, which I had the honour of addreflina: to
you, Gentlemen, on the injlitution and objeSis of our Society, I con-
fined myfelf purpofely to general topicks ; giving in the firft a diftant
profped of the vaft career, on which we were entering, and, in the
fecond, exhibiting a more difFufe, but ftill fuperficial, fketch of the
various difcoveries in Hiftory, Science, and Art, which we might juflly
expe6t from our inquiries into the literature of j(/ia. I now propofe
to fill up that outline fo comprehenfively as to omit nothing effential,
yet fo concifely as to avoid being tedious ; and, if the ftate of my
health fhall fuffer me to continue long enough in this climate, it is my
defign, with your permiflion, to prepare for our annual meetings a
feries of fhort diflertations, unconnefted in their titles and fubjeds,
but all tending to a common point of no fmall importance in the pur-
suit of interefting truths.
K 2 Of
20 THE THIRD DISCOURSE,
Of all the works, which have been publilhed in our own age, or,
perhaps, in any other, on the Hiftory of the Ancient World, and the
Jirjl population of this habitable globe, that of Mr. Jacob Bryant, whom
I name with reverence and affedion, has the beft claim to the praife
of deep erudition ingenioufly applied, and new theories happily illuf-
trated by an aflemblage of numberlefs converging rays from a moft ex-
tenfive circumference : it falls, neverthelefs, as every human work
muft fall, fhort of perfeftion ; and the leaft fatisfa6tory part of it
feems to be that, which relates to the derivation of words from Afiatick
languages. Etymology has, no doubt, fome ufe in hiftorical re-
fearches ; but it is a medium of proof fo very fallacious, that, where
it elucidates one fa61:, it obfcures a thoufand, and more frequently bor-
ders on the ridiculous, than leads to any folid conclufion : it rarely
carries with it any internal power of convidtion from a refemblancc
of founds or fimilarity of letters ; yet often, where it is wholly un-
aflifted by thofe advantages, it may be indlfputabjy proved by extrin-
Jick evidence. We know a pojleriori, that both Jitz and hijo, by the
nature of two feveral dialefts, are derived irovajilius ; that uncle comes
irom avus, and ftranger from extra; that Jour is deducible, through
the Italian, from dies ; and rojjignol from lufcinia, or the Jinger in groves ;
that fciuro, e'cureuil, and fquirrel are compounded of two Greek words
defcriptive of the animal j which etymologies, though they could not
have been demonftrated a priori, might ferve to confirm, if any
fuch confirmation were ncceffary, the proofs of a connexion between
the members of one great Empire ; but, when we derive our hanger, or
Jljort pendent /word, from the Perjian, becaufe ignorant travellers thus
mis-fpell the word khatijar, which in truth means a different weapon,
or fandal-wood from the Greek, becaufe we fuppole, that fandals were
fometimes made of ir, we gain no ground in proving the affinity of
nations, and only weaken arguments, which might otherwife be
firmly fupported. That Cu's then, or, as it certainly is written in
one
ON THE HINDU'S. 21
one ancient dialed^, Cu't, and in others, probably, Ca's, enters into
the compofition of many proper names, we may very reafonably be-
lieve ; and that Algeziras takes its name from the Arabick word for
an ijland, cannot be doubted ', but, when we are told from Europe,
that places and provinces in India were clearly denominated from
thofe words, we cannot but obferve, in the firfl inftance, that the
town, in which we now are affembled, is properly written and pro-
nounced Calicdta ; that both Cdtd and Cuf unqueftionably mean p/acej
of Jlrength, or, in general, any inclofures ; and that Gujarat is at leaft
as remote from Jezirah in found, as it is in fituation.
Another exception (and a third could hardly be difcovered by any
candid criticifm) to the Analyjis of Ancient Mythology^ is, that the
method of reafoning and arrangement of topicks adopted in that learned
work are not quite agreeable to the title, but almoft vj\\o\\y fynthetical ;
and, though fynthejis may be the better mode in pure fcience, where
the principles are undeniable, yet it feems lefs calculated to give com-
plete fatisfaftion in hijlorical difquifitions, where every poftulatum will
perhaps be refufed, and every definition controverted : this may feem
a flight objedion, but the fubjeft is in itfelf fo interefling, and the full
convi6tion of all reafonable men fo defirable, that it may not be loft
labour to difcufs the fame or a fimilar theory in a method purely ana-
lytical, and, after beginning with fa6ts of general notoriety or undif-
puted evidence, to inveftigate fuch truths, as are at firft unknown or
very imperfedlly difcerned.
The Jive principal nations, who have in different ages divided
among themfelves, as a kind of inheritance, the vaft continent oi AJia,
with the many iilands depending on it, are the Indians, the Chinefe,
the Tartars, the Arabs, and the Perjians : who they feverally were,
whence, and when they came, where they now are fettled, and what
advantage
22 THE THIRD DISCOURSE,
advantage a more perfed knowledge oi them all may bring to oui
European world, will be Ihown, I truft, m Jive diilinft effays ; the laft
of which will demonftrate the connexion or diverfity between them,
and folve the great problem, whether they had any common origin,
and whether that origin was the fame, which we generally afcribe
to them,
I begin with India, not becaufe I find reafon to believe it the true
centre of population or of knowledge, but, becaufe it is the country,
which we now inhabit, and from which we may bell: furvey the re-
gions around us ; as, in popular language, we fpeak of the rijing fun,
and of his progrefs through the Zodiack, although it had long ago been
imagined, and is now demonftrated, that he is himfelf the centre of
our planetary fjftem. Let me here premife, that, in all thefe inquiries
concerning the hiftory of India, I fliall confine my refearches down-
wards to the Mohammedan conquefts at the beginning of the eleventh
century, but extend them upwards, as high as poffible, to the
earlieft authentick records of the human Ipecies.
India then, on its mod enlarged fcale, in which the ancients appear
to have underflood it, comprifes an area of near forty degrees on each
fide, including a fpace almofl: as large as all Europe ; being divided on
the weft from Perfia by the Arachofan mountains, limited on the eaft by
the Chinefe part of the farther peninfula, confined on the north by the
wilds of Tartary, and extending to the fouth as far as the ifles of Java,
This trapezium, therefore, comprehends the flupendous hills o{ Potyid
or Tibet, the beautiful valley of Cajlmiir, and all the domains of the
old Indofcythians, the countries of Nepal and Butdnt, Cdmriip or Afam,
together with Siam, Ava, Racan, and the bordering kingdoms, as far
as the China of the Hindus or Sin of the Arabian Geographers ; not to
mention the whole weficrn peninfula with the celebrated ifland of
Sinhala,
ON THE HINDU'S. 23
Sinhala, or Lion-like men, at its fouthern extremity. By India, in
fliort, I mean that whole extent of country, in which the primitive
religion and languages of the Hindus prevail at this day with more
or lefs of their ancient purity, and in which the Ndgari letters are
Itill ufed with more or lefs deviation from their original form.
The Hindus themfelves believe their own country, to which they
give the vain epithets of Medhyama or Central, and Punyabhmii, or the
Land of Virtues, to have been the portion of Bharat, one of nine
brothers, whofe father had the dominion of the whole earth ; and they
reprefent the mountains of Himalaya as lying to the north, and, to the
weft, thofe of Vindhya, called alfo Vindian by the Greeks; beyond
which the Sindhu runs in feveral branches to the fea, and meets it
nearly oppofite to the point of Dwdraca, the celebrated feat of their
Shepherd God : in the fouth-eajl they place the great river Saravatya ;
by which they probably mean that of u4va, called alfo Aird'vati in
part of its courfe, and giving perhaps its ancient name to the gulf of
Sahara. This domain of Bharat they confider as the middle of the
Jambtidwipa, which the Tibetians alio call the Land of Zambii ; and
the appellation is extremely remarkable ; for Jambu is the Sanfcrit
name of a delicate fruit called yAman by the Mufelmans, and by us
rofe-apple ; but the largeft and richeft fort is named Amrita, or hn-
mortal; and the Mythologifts of Tibet apply the fame word to a ce-
leftial tree bearing ambrojial fruit, and adjoining to four vaft rocks
from which as many facred rivers derive their feveral ftrcams.
The inhabitants of this extenfive tra£l are defcribed by Mr. Lord
with great exaftnefs, and with a pifturefque elegance peculiar to our
ancient language : " A people, fays he, prelented themfelves to mine
" eyes, clothed in linen garments fomewhat low defcending, of a
gefture and garb, as 1 may fay, maidenly and well nigh effeminate,
" of
24 THE THIRD DISCOURSE,
" of a countenance fhy and fomewhat eftranged, yet fmiling out a
" glozed and bafhful familiarity." Mr. Orme, the Hii^orian oi India,
who unites an exquifite tafte for every fine art with an accurate know-
ledge of Afiatick manners, obferves, in his elegant preliminary Difler-
tation, that this " country has been inhabited from the earlieft an-
" tiquity by a people, who have no refemblance, either in their figure
" or manners, with any of the nations contiguous to them," and that,
" although conquerors have eftablifhed themfelves at different times
" in different parts of India, yet the original inhabitants have loft very
" little of their original charader." The ancients, in fa61, give a de-
fcription of them, which our early travellers confirmed, and our own
perfonal knowledge of them nearly verifies ; as you will perceive from
a paffage in the Geographical Poem of Dionysius, which the Analyft
of Ancient Mythology has tranflated with great fpirit :
" To th' eaft a lovely country wide extends,
*' India, whofe borders the wide ocean bounds ;
*' On this the fun, new rifing from the main,
*' Smiles pleas'd, and fheds his early orient beam.
*' Th' inhabitants are fwart, and in their locks
" Betray the tints of the dark hyacinth.
*' Various their fundions ; fome the rock explore,
" And from the mine extradl the latent gold ;
*' Some labour at the woof with cunning ikill,
" And manufafture linen ; others Ihape
" And polifh iv'ry with the niceft care :
" Many retire to rivers fhoal, and plunge
" To feek the beryl flaming in its bed,
" Or glitt'ring diamond. Oft the jafper's found
" Green, but diaphanous ; the topaz too
" Of ray ferene and pleafing ; laft of all
" The
ON THE HINDU'S. 25
" The lovely amethyft, in which combine
" All the mild (hades of purple. The rich foil,
*' Wafh'd by a thoufand rivers, from all fides
" Pours on the natives wealth without control."
Their fources of wealth are ftill abundant even after fo many revolu-
tions and conquefts ; in their manufactures of cotton they ftill furpafs all
the world; and their features have, moft probably, remained unaltered
fince the time of Dionysius ; nor can we reafonably doubt, how dege-
nerate and abafed fo ever the Hindus may now appear, that in fome early
age they were fplendid in arts and arms, happy in government, wife in
legiflation, and eminent in various knowledge : but, fince their civil
hiftory beyond the middle of the nineteenth century from the prefent
time, is involved in a cloud of fables, we feem to poflefs only four
general media of fatisfylng our curiofity concerning it ; namely, firft,
their Languages and Letters ; fecondly, their Philofophy and Religion ;
thirdly, the adual remains of their old Sculpture and Archite6lure ;
and fourthly, the written memorials of their Sciences and Arts.
I. It is much to be lamented, that neither the Greeks^ who attended
Alexander into India, nor thofe who were long connefted with
it under the BaBrian Princes, have left us any means of knowing with
accuracy, what vernacular languages they found on their arrival in
this Empire. The Mohammedans, we know, heard the people of proper
Hindujlan, or India on a limited fcale, fpeaking a Bhdjl:d, or living
tongue of a very fingular conftrudlion, the pureft diale6l of which
was current in the diftridts round Agra, and chiefly on the poetical
ground of Mat'hura ; and this is commonly called the idiom of Vraja,
Five words in fix, perhaps, of this language were derived from the
Sanfcrit, in which books of religion and fcience were compofed,
and which appears to have been formed by an exquifite grammatical
VOL. I. G arrangement f
20 THE THIRD DISCOURSE,
arrangement, as the name itfelf implies, from fome unpolifhed idiom ;
but the bafis of the Hindujlani, particularly the inflexions and regimen
of verbs, differed as widely from both thofe tongues, as Arabick differs
from Perftan, or German from Greek. Now the general effeft of con-
quefl is to leave the current language of the conquered people un-
changed, or very little altered, in its ground-work, but to blend with
it a confiderable number of exotick names both for things and for
adlions ; as it has happened in every country, that I can recolledt,
where the conquerors have not preferved their own tongue unmixed
with that of the natives, like the Turks in Greece, and the Saxons in
Britain ; and this analogy might induce us to believe, that the pure
Hindi, whether of Tartarian or Chaldean origin, was primeval in Upper
India, into which the Sanfcrit was introduced by conquerors from other
kingdoms in fome very remote age ; for we cannot doubt that the
language of the Veda's was ufed in the great extent of country, which
has before been delineated, as long as the religion of Brahma has
prevailed in it.
The Satifcrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful
rtrudture ; more perfecft than the Greek, more copious than the Latin,
and more exquifitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a
ftronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar,
than could pofhbly have been produced by accident j fo flrong indeed,
that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing
them to have fprung from fome common fource, which, perhaps, no
longer exifts : there is a fimilar reafon, though not quite fo forcible,
for fuppofing that both the Gothick and the Celtick, though blended
with a very different idiom, had the fame origin with the Sanfcrit ;
and the old Perjian might be added to the fame family, if this were
the place for difcufTing any queftion concerning the antiquities of
Perjia.
The
ON THE HINDU'S. 27
The charaBerSy in which the languages of India were originally
written, are called Ndgari, from Nagara, a City, with the word Deva
fometimes prefixed, becaufe they are believed to have been taught by
the Divinity himfelf, who prefcribed the artificial order of them in a
voice from heaven. Thefe letters, with no greater variation in their
form by the change of flraight lines to curves, or converfely, than the
Cufick alphabet has received in its way to India, are ftill adopted in
more than twenty kingdoms and ftates, from the borders of Cafigar
and Khoten, to Rama's bridge, and from the Sindhu to the river of Siam ;
nor can I help believing, although the polifhed and elegant Devanagari
may not be fo ancient as the monumental charaders in the caverns of
Jarafandha, that the fquare Chaldaick letters, in which moft Hebrew
books are copied, were originally the fame, or derived from the fame
prototype, both with the Indian and Arabian charadters : that the Phe-
nician, from which the Greek and Roman alphabets were formed by
various changes and inverfions, had a fimilar origin, there can be little
doubt ; and the infcriptions at Candrah, of which you now poflefs a moft
accurate copy, feem to be compounded of Ndgari and Ethiopick letters,
which bear a clofe relation to each other, both in the mode of writing
from the left hand, and in the fingular manner of connedling the
vowels with the confonants. Thefe remarks may favour an opinion
entertained by many, that all the fymbols of found, which at firft,
probably, were only rude outlines of the different organs of fpeech, had
a common origin : the fymbols of ideas, now ufed in China and Japan,
and formerly, perhaps, in Egypt and Mexico, are quite of a diftindt
nature; but it is very remarkable, that the order oi founds in the
Chinefe grammars correfponds nearly with that obferved in Tibet, and
hardly differs from that, which the Hindus confider as the invention of
their Gods.
G 2 II. Of
28 THE THIRD DISCOURSE,
II. Of the Indian Religion and Philofophy, I Ihall here fay but little j
becaufe a full account of each would require a feparate volume : it will
be fufficient in this differtation to afTume, what might be proved beyond
controverfy, that we now live among the adorers of thofe very deities,
who were worfliipped under different names in old Greece and Italy, and
among the profeffors of thofe philofophical tenets, which the lonick and
Attkk writers illuflrated with all the beauties of their melodious
language. On one hand we fee the trident of Neptune, the eagle
of Jupiter, the fatyrs of Bacchus, the bow of Cupid, and the
chariot of the Sun ; on another we hear the cymbals of Rhea, the fongs
of the Mufes, and the paftoral tales of Apollo Nomius. In more
retired fcenes, in groves, and in feminaries of learning, we may per-
ceive the Bi'dhmans and the Sarmanes, mentioned by Clemens, dif-
puting in the forms of logick, or difcourling on the vanity of human
enjoyments, on the immortality of the foul, her emanation from the
eternal mind, her debafement, wanderings, and final union with her
fource. The Jix philofophical fchools, whofe principles are explained
in the Derfana Sdjira, comprife all the metaphyficks of the old Aca-,
demy, the Stoa, the Lyceum ; nor is it poffible to read the Veddnta, or
the many fine compofitions in illuftration of it, without believing, that
Pythagoras and Plato derived their fublime theories from the
fame fountain with the fages of India. The Scythian and Hyperborean
doctrines and mythology may alfo be traced in every part of thefe eaflern
regions ; nor can we doubt, that Wod or Oden, whofe religion, as
the northern hiflorians admit, was introduced into Scandinavia by a
foreign race, was the fame with Buddh, whofe rites were probably
imported into India nearly at the fame time, though received much
later by the Chincfe, who foften his name into FO'.
This may be a proper place to afcertain an important point in the
Chronology of the Hindus; for the priefts of Buddha left in Tibet
and
ON THE HINDU'S. 29
and China the precife epoch of his appearance, real or hnaghied, in
this Empire ; and their information, which had been preferved in
writing, was compared by the Chrijlian Miflionaries and fcholars with
our own era. Couplet, De Guignes, Giorgi, and Bai lly, differ
a little in their accounts of this epoch, but that of Couplet feems the
moft corredl : on taking, however, the medium of the four feveral
dates, we may fix the time of Buddha, or the ninth great incarnation
of Vishnu, in the year one thonfand and fourteen before the birth of
Christ, or tivo thonjand feven hundred and ninety-nine years ago. Now
the Cdjhmirians, who boall: of his defcent in their kingdom, affert that
he appeared on earth about two centuries after Crishna the Indian
Apollo, who took fo decided a part in the war of the Mahdbhdrat ;
and, if an Etymologift were to fuppofe, that the Athenians had em-
bellifhed their poetical hiftory of Pan D ion's expulfion and the reftor-
ation of .^geus with the AJiatick tale of the Pa'ndus and YuD-
HISHTIR, neither of which words they could have articulated, I
fhould not haftily deride his conjefture : certain it is, that Pdndumandel
is called by the Greeks the country of Pan d ion. We have, there-
fore, determined another interefting epoch, by fixing the age of
Crishna near the three thoufandth year from the prefent time j and,
as the three firft Avatars, or defcents of Vishnu, relate no lefs clearly
to an Univerfal Deluge, in which eight perfons only were faved, than
X^t fourth ^nA.ffth do to the puniJJ?ment of impiety and the humiliation of
the proud, we may for the prefent affume, that the fecond, or filver,
age of the Hindus was fubfequent to the difperfion from Babel; fo
that we have only a dark interval of about a thoufand years, which
were employed in the fettlement of nations, the foundation of ftates or
empires, and the cultivation of civil fociety. The great incarnate
Gods of this intermediate age are both named Ra'ma but with dif-
ferent epithets ; one of whom bears a wonderful refemblance to the
Indian Bacchus, and his wars are the fubjed of feveral heroick poems.
He
30 THE THIRD DISCOURSE,
He is reprefented as a defcendent from Su'rya, or the Sun, as the
hufband of Si'ta', and the fon of a princefs named Cau'selya':
it is very remarkable, that the Peruvians, whofe Incas boafted of the
fame defcent, ftyled their greatell feftival Ramafitoa ; whence we may
fuppofe, that South America was peopled by the fame race, who im-
ported into the fartheft parts of AJia the rites and fabulous hiftory of
Ra'ma. Thefe rites and this hiftory are extremely curious; and,
although I cannot believe with Newton, than ancient mythology
was nothing but hiftorical truth in a poetical drefs, nor, with Bacon,
that it confifted folely of moral and metaphyfical allegories, nor with
Bryant, that all the heathen divinities are only different attributes
and reprefentations of the Sun or of deceafed progenitors, but conceive
that the whole fyftem of religious fables rofe, like the Nile, from fe-
veral diftincft fources, yet I cannot but agree, that one great fpring
and fountain of all idolatry in the four quarters of the globe was the
veneration paid by men to the vaft body of fire, which " looks from
his fole dominion like the God of this world ;" and another, the im-
moderate refpeft fhown to the memory of powerful or virtuous an-
ceftors, efpecially the founders of kingdoms, legiflators, and warriors,
of whom the Sun or the Moon were wildly fuppofed to be the parents.
III. The remains of architeSiure and fculpture in India, which I
mention here as mere monuments of antiquity, not as fpecimens of
ancient art, feem to prove an early connedlion between this country
and Africa : the pyramids of Egypt, the colofTal ftatues defcribed by
Pausanias and others, the fphinx, and the Hermes Cams, which
laft bears a great refemblance to the Vardhdvatar, or the incarnation
of Vishnu in the form of a Boar, indicate the ftyle and mythology of
the fame indefatigable workmen, who formed the vaft excavations of
Cdndrah, the various temples and images of Buddha, and the idols,
which are continually dug up at Gayd, or in its vicinity. The letters
on
ON THE HINDU'S. 31
an many of thofe monuments appear, as I have before intimated, partly
of Indiaii, and partly of Aby£inian or Ethiopick, origin ; and all thefe
indubitable fails may induce no ill-grounded opinion, that Ethiopia
and Hinduftan were peopled or colonized by the fame extraordinary
race ; in confirmation of which, it may be added, that the moun-
taineers of Bengal and Bahar can hardly be diftinguifhed in fome of
their features, particularly their lips and nofes, from the modern Abyf-
fmians, whom the Arabs call the children of Cu'sh : and the ancient
Hindus, according to Strabo, differed in nothing from the Africans^
but in the flraitnefs and fmoothnefs of their hair, while that of the
others was crifp or woolly ; a difference proceeding chiefly, if not en-
tirely, from the refpeftive humidity or drynefs of their atmofpheres :
hence the people who received thejirjl light of the rijing fun, according
to the limited knowledge of the ancients, are faid by Apuleius to be
the Ar'u and Ethiopians, by which he clearly meant certain nations of
India; where we frequently fee figures of Buddha with curled hair
apparently defigned for a reprefentation of it in its natural ftate.
IV. It is unfortunate, that the Silpi Sdjlra, or colleSlion of treatifes on
Arts and MamfaSlures, which muft have contained a treafure of ufe-
ful information on dying, painting, and metallurgy, has been fo long
negled:ed, that few, if any, traces of it are to be found j but the
labours of the Indian loom and needle have been univerfally celebrated;
and fne linen is not improbably fuppofed to have been called Sindon,
from the name of the river near which it was wrought in the higheft
perfedlion : the people of Colchis were alfo famed for this manufa<5ture,
and the Egyptians yet more, as we learn from feveral pafTages in
fcripture, and particularly from a beautiful chapter in Ezekial con-
taining the moft authentick delineation of ancient commerce, of which
Tyre had been the principal mart. Silk was fabricated immemorially
by the Indians, though commonly afcribed to the people of Serica or
lanciit.
32 THE THIRD DISCOURSE,
Tancut, among whom probably the word Ser, which the Greeks ap-
plied to the. ftlk-worm, lignified gold ; a fenfe, which it now bears in
Tibet. That the Hindus were in early ages a commercial people, we
have many reafons to believe ; and in the firfl of their facred law-tradls,
which they fuppofe to have been revealed by Menu many millions of
years ago, we find a curious paflage on the legal interejl of money,
and the limited rate of it in different cafes, with an exception in regard
to adventures at fea ; an exception, which the fenfe of mankind ap-
proves, and which commerce abfolutely requires, though it was not
before the reign of Charles I. that our own jurifprudence fully ad-
mitted it in refpedl of maritime contradls.
We are told by the Grecian writers, that the Indians were the wifefl
of nations ; and in moral wifdom, they were certainly eminent : their
Niti Sdjlra, or Syjiem of Ethicks, is yet preferved, and the Fables of
ViSHN USER MAN, whom we ridiculoufly call Pilpay, are the mofi: beau-
tiful, if not the mofi: ancient, collection of apologues in the world :
they were firft tranflated from the Sanfcrit, in ih.e.Jixth century, by the
order ofBuzERCHUMiHR, or Bright as the Sun, the chief phyfician
and afterwards Vezir of the great Anu'shireva'n, and are extant under
various names in more than twenty languages ; but their original
title is Hitopadefa, or Amicable InJlruBion ; and, as the very exiftence
of Esop, whom the Arabs believe to have been an AbyJJiniaji, appears
rather doubtful, I am not difinclined to fuppofe, that the firfb moral
fables, which appeared in Europe, were of Indian or Ethiopian origin.
The Hindus are faid to have boafted of /-6r^^ inventions, all of which,
indeed, are admirable, the method of inftrudling by apologues, the
decimal fc ale adopted now by all civilized nations, and the game of
Chefs, on which they have fome curious treatifes ; but, if their numer-
ous v/orks on Grammar, Logick, Rhetorick, Mufick, all which are
extant
ON THE HINDU'S. 3
•t
extant and acceffible, were explained in fonie language generally known,
it would be found, that they had yet higher pretenfions to the praifc
of a fertile and inventive genius. Their lighter Poems are lively and
elegant -, their Epick, magnificent and fublime in the higheft degree ;
their Purdnas comprife a feries of mythological Hiftories in blank
verfe from the Creation to the fuppofed incarnation of Buddha ; and
their Vedas, as far as we can judge from that compendium of them,
which is called Upanipjat, abound with noble fpeculations in metaphy-
ficks, and fine difcourfes on the being and attributes of God. Their
moft ancient medical book, entitled Chereca, is believed to be the
work of Siva ; for each of the divinities in their Triad h^s at leaft one
facred compofition afcribed to him ; but, as to mere human works on
Hijiory and Geography, though they are faid to be extant in Capjnir^
it has not been yet in my power to procure them. What their ajlro-
nomical and mathematical writings contain, will not, I trufl, remain
long a fecret : they are eafily procured, and their importance cannot
be doubted. The Philofopher, whofe works are faid to include a
fyftem of the univerfe founded on the principle of AttraBion and the
Central ^o^vivon of the fun, is named Yavan Acha'rya, becaufe he
had travelled, we are told, into Ionia : if this be true, he might have
been one of thofe, who converfed with Pythagoras; this at leaft is
undeniable, that a book on aftronomy in Sanfcrit bears the title of
Yavana Jdtica, which may fignify the Io7iic Se£i ; nor is it improbable,
that the names of the planets and Zodiacal ftars, which the Arabs
borrowed from the Greeks, but which we find in the oldeft Indian re-
cords, were originally devifed by the fame ingenious and enterprizing
race, from whom both Greece and India were peopled ; the race, who,
as DiONYsius defcribes them.
firft aflayed the deep.
* And wafted merchandize to coafts unknown,
VOL. I, H « Thofe,
34 " THE THIRD DISCOURSE.
' Thofe, who digefted firfl the ftarry choir,
* Their motions mark'd, and call'd them by their names.'
Of thefe curfory obfervations on the Hindus, which it would re-
quire vohimes to expand and illuftrate, this is the refult : that they
had an immemorial affinity with the old Perfians, Ethiopians, and
Egyptians, the Phenicians, Greeks, and Tufcans, the Scythians or Goths,
and Celts, the Chitiefe, "JapaJiefe, and Peruvians; whence, as no reafon
appears for believing, that they were a colony from any one of thofe
nations, or any of thofe nations from them, we may fairly conclude
that they all proceeded from fome central country, to invefligate which
will be the obje6t of my future Difcourfes ; and I have a fanguine hope,
that your colledlions during the prefent year will bring to light many
ufeful difcoveries ; although the departure for Europe of a very in-
genious member, who lirft opened the ineftimable mine of Sanfcrit
literature, will often deprive us of accurate and folid information con-
cerning the languages and antiquities of India,
THE
THE FOURTH
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE,
DELR'ERED 15 FEBRUARY, 1787.
BT
The president.
GENTLEMEN,
1 HAD the honour lafl: year of opening to you my intention, to dif-
courfe at our annual meetings on the^-y^ principal nations, who have
peopled the continent and iflands of AJia ; fo as to trace, by an hifto-
rical and philological analyfis, the number of ancient flems, from
which thofe five branches have feverally fprung, and the central region,
from which they appear to have proceeded : you may, therefore, exped:,
that, having fubmitted to your confideration a few general remarks on
the old inhabitants of In^ia, I fhould now offer my fentiments on fomc
other nation, who, from a fimilarity of language, religion, arts, and
manners, may be fuppofed to have had an early connexion with the
Hindus ; but, fince we find fome Afiatick nations totally diflimilar to
them in all or moft of thofe particulars, and fince the difterence will
ftrike you more forcibly by an immediate and clofe comparifon, I defign
at prefent to give a (hort account of a wonderful people, who feem in
H 2 every
36 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE,
every refpecH: fo ftrongly contrafted to the original natives of this coun-
try, that they miifl have been for ages a diftind and feparate race.
For the purpofe of thefe difcourfes, I confidered India on its largeft
fcale, defcribing it as lying between Perjia and China, Tartary and
^ava ; and, for the fame purpofe, I now apply the name of Arabia,
as the Arabian Geographers often apply it, to that extenfive Peninfula,
which the Red Sea divides from Africa, the great Ajfyrian river from
Iran, and of which the Erythrean Sea wafhes the bafe ; without ex-
cluding any part of its weftern fide, which would be completely mari-
time, if no ifthmus intervened between the Mediterranean, and the Sea
of Kolzom : that country in fhort I call Arabia, in which the Arabick
language and letters, or fuch as have a near affinity to them, have been
immemorially current.
Arabia, thus divided from India by a vaft ocean, or at leaft by a
broad bay, could hardly have been conne(fted in any degree with this
country, until navigation and commerce had been confiderably im-
proved : yet, as the Hindus and the people of Yemen were both com-
mercial nations in a very early age, they were probably the firft inftru-
ments of conveying to the weftern world the gold, ivory, and perfumes
oi India, as well as the fragrant wood, called dlliiiowa in Arabick and
aguru in Sanfcrit, which grows in the greatefl perfe<3:ion in Anatn or
Cochinchina. It is poflible too, that a part of the Arabian Idolatry
might have been derived from the fame fource with that of the Hindus ^
but fuch an intercourfe may be confidered as partial and accidental
only ; nor am I more convinced, than I was fifteen years ago, when
I took the liberty to animadvert on a pafiage in the Hiftory of Prince
Kant EMIR, that the 'Turks have any juft reafon for holding the
coaft of Yemen to be a part of India, and calling its inhabitants Yellow
Indians^
The
ON THE ARABS. 37
The Arabs have never been entirely fubdued ; nor has any impreffion
been made on them, except on their borders % vv^here, indeed, the
Phenicians, Perjians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, and, in modern times, the
Othman Tartars, have feverally acquired fettlements ; but, with thefe
exceptions, the natives of Hejaz and Yemen have preferved for ages the
fole dominion of their deferts and paftures, their mountains and fertile
valleys : thus, apart from the reft of mankind, this extraordinary peo-
ple have retained their primitive manners and language, features and
charadler, as long and as remarkably as the Hindus themfelves. All
the genuine Arabs of Syria whom I knew in Europe, thofe of Ye/nen,
whom I faw in the ifle of Hinzuan, whither many had come from
Majkat for the purpofe of trade, and thofe of Hejaz, whom I have
met in Bengal, form a ftriking contraft to the Hindu inhabitants of thefe
provinces : their eyes are full of vivacity, their fpeech voluble and arti-
culate, their deportment manly and dignified, their apprehenfion quick,
their minds always prefent and attentive ; with a fpirit of independence
appearing in the countenances even of the loweft among them. Men
will always differ in their ideas of civilization, each meafuring it by
the habits and prejudices of his own country ; but, if courtefy and ur-
banity, a love of poetry and eloquence, and the pradlice of exalted
virtues be a jufter meafure of perfeft fociety, we have certain proof,
that the people of Arabia, both on plains and in cities, in republican
and monarchical ftates, were eminently civilized for many ages before
their conqueft of Perfia,
It is deplorable, that the ancient Hiftory of this majeftick race
fhould be as little known in detail before the time of Dhu Tezen, as
that of the Hindus before Vicramaditya ; for, although the vaft hifto-
rical work of Alnuwairi, and the Murujuldhahab, or Golden Meadows,
of Almajuudi, contain chapters on the kings of Himyar, Ghafan, and
Hirah, with lifts of them and fketches of their feveral reigns, and
although
o
8 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE,
although Genealogical Tables, from which chronology might be better
afcertained, are prefixed to many compofitions of the old Arabian
Poets, yet moft manufcripts are fo incorredl, and fo many contradidions
are found in the beft of them, that we can fcarce lean upon tradition
with fecurity, and muft have recourfe to the fame media for invefti-
gating the hiflory of the Arabs, that I before adopted in regard to that
of the Indians ; namely, their language, letters, and religion, their an-
cient monuments, and the certain remains of their arts ; on each of
which heads I fliall touch very concifely, having premifed, that my
obfervations will in general be confined to the ftate of Arabia before
that fingular revolution, at the beginning of the feventh century, the
effedls of which we feel at this day from the Pyrenean mountains
and the Danube, to the farthefl; parts of the Indian E?npire, and even
to the Eaflern Iflands.,
I. For the knowledge, which any European, who pleafes, may at-
tain of the Arabia)! language, we are principally indebted to the
univerfity of Leyden ; for, though feveral Italians have afliduoully la-
boured in the fame wide field, yet the fruit of their labours has been
rendered almofi: ufelefs by more commodious and more accurate works
printed in Holland ; and, though Pocock certainly accomplifhed much,
and was able to accomplifli any thing, yet the Academical eafe, which
he enjoyed, and his theological purfuits, induced him to leave unfiniflied
the valuable work of Maiddm, which he had prepared for publica-
tion ; nor, even if that rich mine of Arabian Philology had feen the
light, would it have borne any comparifon with the fifty differtations
of Hariri, which the firft Albert Schultens tranflated and ex-
plained, though he fent abroad but few of them, and has left his
worthy grandfon, from whom perhaps Maiddni alfo may be expefted,
the honour of publifhing the reft: but the palm of glory in this
branch of literature is due to GoLius, whofe works are equally
profound
ON THE ARABS. 39
profoLind and elegant ; fo perfpicuous in method, that they may always
be confulted without fatigue, and read without languor, yet fo abundant
in matter, that any man, who fhall begin with his noble edition of the
Grammar compiled by his mafter Erpenius, and proceed, with the
help of his incomparable didlionary, to fludy his Hiftory of Taimur by
Ibni Arabfidh, and fhall make himfelf complete mafter of that fublime
work, will underftand the learned '-^r^^Vy^ better than the deepeft
fcholar at Conjiantmople or at Mecca. The Arabkk language, there-
fore, is almoft wholly in our power ; and, as it is unqueftionably one
of the moft ancient in the world, fo it yields to none ever fpoken by
mortals in the number of its words and the precifion of its phrafes j
but it is equally true and wonderful, that it bears not the leaft refem-
blance, either in words or the ftrucfture of them, to the Sa7ifcrit, or
great parent of the India?! dialedls ; of which diffimilarity I will men-
tion two remarkable inftances : the Sanfcrk, like the Greek, Perjiariy
and German, delights in compounds, but, in a much higher degree,
and indeed to fuch excefs, that I could produce words of more than
twenty fyllables, not formed ludicroufly, like that by which the buffoon
in Aristophanes defcribes a feaft, but with perfedl ferioufnefs, on
the moft folemn occafions, and in the moft elegant works ; while the
Arabkk, on the other hand, and all its fifter dialedls, abhor the com-
pofition of words, and invariably exprefs very complex ideas by cir-
cumlocution ; fo that, if a compound word be found in any genuine
language of the Arabian Peninfula, fzenmcrdah for inftance, which
occurs in the HamdfahJ it may at once be pronounced an exotick.
Again i it is the genius of the Sanfcrit, and other languages of the
fame ftock, that the roots of verbs be almoft univerfally biUteral, fo
that jive and twenty hundred fuch roots might be formed by the com-
pofition of xhcjifty Indian letters ; but the Arabick roots are as univer-
fally triUteral, fo that the compofition of the twenty-eight Arabian letters
would give near two and twenty thoufand elements of the language : and
this
40 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE,
this will demonftrate the furprifing extent of it ; for, although great
numbers of its roots are confefledly lofl:, and fome, perhaps, were
never in ufe, yet, if we fuppofe ten thoufand of them (without
reckoning quadriliterals ) to exift, and each of them to admit only Jive
variations, one with another, in forming derivative nouns, even then a
iptT^edL, Arabic k dictionary ought to conti.\n Jifty thoufajid words, each
of which may receive a multitude of changes by the rules of grammar.
The derivatives in Sanfcrit are confiderably more numerous : but a
farther comparifon between the two languages is here unneceffary ;
fmce, in whatever light we view them, they feem totally diftinifl, and
muft have been invented by two different races of men ; nor do I re-
colled a fingle word in common between them, except Siiriij, the
plural of Siraj, meaning both a lamp and the fun, the Sanfcrit name of
which is, in Bengal, pronounced Surja ; and even this refemblance
may be purely accidental. We may eafily believe with the Hindus,
that not even Indra hiinjelf and his heavenly baJids, much lefs ariy
mortal, ever comprehended in his mind fuch an ocean of words as their
f acred language contains, and with the Arabs, that no man uninfpired
was ever a complete mailer oi Arabick: in fadl no perfon, I believe,
now living in 'Europe or AJia, can read without ftudy an hundred
couplets together in any colleftion of ancient Arabian poems ; and
we are told, that the great author of the Kdmiis learned by accident
from the mouth of a child, in a village of Arabia, the meaning of
three words, which he had long fought in vain from grammarians,
and from books, of the higheft reputation. It is by approximation
alone, that a knowledge of thefe two venerable languages can be ac-
quired ^ and, with moderate attention, enough of them both may be
known, to delight and inftrudl us in an infinite degree : I conclude this
head with remarking, that the nature of the Ethiopick dialed feems to
prove an early eftablifhment of the Arabs in part of Ethiopia, from
which they were afterwards expelled, and attacked even in their owfi
country
ON THE ARABS. 41
country by the AbyJJinians, who had been invited over as auxiliaries
againft the tyrant of Yemen about a century before the birth of Mu-
HAMMED.
Of the charafters, in vv^hich the old compofitions of Arabia were
written, we know but little; except that the Koran originally appeared
in thofe of Ciifah, from which the modern Arabian letters, with all
their elegant variations, were derived, and which unqueftionably had
a common origin with the Hebrew or Chaldaick ; but, as to the Himya-
rick letters, or thofe which we fee mentioned by the name of Ahnufnad,
we are ftill in total darknefs ; the traveller Niebuhr having been un-
fortunately prevented from vifiting fome ancient monuments in Temen,
which are faid to have infcriptions on them : if thofe letters bear a
flrong refemblance to the Ndgar}, and if a ftory current in India be
true, that fome Hindu merchants heard the Sanfcrit language fpoken in
Arabia the Happy, we might be confirmed in our opinion, that an in-
tercourfe formerly fubfifled between the two nations of oppofite coafts,
but fliould have no reafon to believe, that they fprang from the fame
immediate flock. The tirft fy liable of Hamyar, as many Europeans write
it, might perhaps induce an Etymologift to derive the Arabs of Temen
from the great ancellor of the Indians; but we muft obferve, that
Hitnyar is the proper appellation of thofe Arabs ; and many reafons
concur to prove, that the word is purely Arabick : the fimilarity of
fome proper names on the borders of India to thofe of Arabia, as the
river Arabius, a place called Araba, a people named Aribes or Arabies,
and another called Sabai, is indeed remarkable, and may hereafter fur-
nifli me with obfervations of fome importance, but not at all incon-
liftent with my prefent ideas.
II. It is generally aflerted, that the old religion of the Arabs was
entirely Sabian ; but I can otiir fo little accurate information concern-
voL. I. I ing
42 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE,
ing the Sabian faith, or even the meaning of the word, that I dare not
yet fpeak on the fubjeft with confidence. This at leaft is certain, that
the people of Yemen very foon fell into the common, but fatal, errour
of adoring the Sun and the Firmament ; for even the third in defcent
from YoKTAN, who was confequently as old as Nahor, took the
furname of Abdushams, or Servant of the Sun ; and his family, we
are alfured, paid particular honours to that luminary : other tribes
worfhipped the planets and fixed ftars ; but the religion of the poets
at leaft feems to have been pure Theifm ; and this we know with cer-
tainty, becaufe we have Arabian verfes of unfufpedled antiquity, v/hich
contain pious and elevated fentiments on the goodnefs and juftice, the
power and omniprefence, of Allah, or the God. If an infcrip-
tion, faid to have been found on marble in Yemen, be authentick, the
ancient inhabitants of that country preferved the religion of Eber, and
profefl'ed a belief in miracles and a future Jlate.
We are alfo told, that a ftrong refemblance may be found between
the religions of the pagan Arabs and the Hindus ; but, though this may
be true, yet an agreement in worfliipping the fun and ftars will not prove
an affinity between the two nations : the powers of God reprefented as
female deities, the adoration oi fones, and the name of the Idol Wudd,
may lead us indeed to fufpeft, that fome of the Hindu fuperftitions had
found their way into Arabia ; and, though we have no traces in Ara-
bian Hiftory of fuch a conqueror or legillator as the great Sesac, who
is faid to have raifed pillars in Yemen as well as at the mouth of the
Ganges, yet, fince we know, that Sa'cya is a title of Buddha,
whom I fuppofe to be Woden, fince Buddha was not a native of
India, and fince the age of Sesac perfedlly agrees with that of Sa'cya,
we may form a plaufible conjefture, that they were in fadl the fame
pcrfon, who travelled eaftward from Ethiopia, either as a warriour or
as a lawgiver, about a thoufand years before Christ, and whofe rites
we
ON THE ARABS. 43
wc now fee extended as far as the country of N/fon, or, as the Chinefe
call it, Japiien, both words fignifying the Rijing Sun. Sa'cya may
be derived from a word meaning power, or from another denoting
vegetable food ; fo that this epithet will not determine, whether he was
a hero or a philofopher ; but the title Buddha, or wife, may induce us
to believe, that he was rather a benefadlor, than a deftroyer, of his
fpecies : if his religion, however, was really introduced into any part
of Arabia, it could not have been general in that country j and we
may fafely pronounce, that before the Mohammedan revolution, the
noble and learned Arabs were Theifls, but that a flupid idolatry pre-
vailed among the lower orders of the people.
I find no trace among them, till their emigration, of any Philofophy
but Et hicks; and even their fyftem of morals, generous and enlarged as
it feems to have been in the minds of a few illuftrious chieftains, was
on the whole miferably depraved for a century at leaft before Muham-
MED : the diftinguifhing virtues, which they boafled of inculcating and
pradlifing, were a contempt of riches and even of death ; but, in the
age of the Seven Poets, their liberality had deviated into mad profufion,
their courage into ferocity, and their patience into an obftinate fpirit
of encountering fruitlefs dangers ; but I forbear to expatiate on the
manners of the Arabs in that age, becaufe the poems, entitled Almodl-
lakdt, which have appeared in our own language, exhibit an exadt
piifture of their virtues and their vices, their wifdom and their folly;
and fliow what may be conflantly expelled from men of open hearts
f.nd boiling paflions, with no law to control, and little religion to re-
ftrain, them.
III. Few monuments of antiquity are preferved in Arabia, and of thofe
few the beft accounts are very uncertain ; but we are afTured, that in-
fcriptions on rocks and mountains are ftill feen in various parts of the
I 2 Peninfula ;
44 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE,
Peninfula J which, if they are in any known language, and if corredl
copies of them can be procured, may be decyphered by eafy and in-
falhble rules.
The firll: Albert Schultens has preferved in his Ancient Memo-
rials of Arabia, the moll: pleafing of all his works, two little poems in
an elegiack ftrain, which are faid to have been found, about the middle
of the feventh century, on fome fragments of ruined edifices in Hadra-
milt near Aden, and are fuppofed to be of an indefinite, but very remote,
age. It may naturally be afked: In what charafters were they written?
Who decyphered them ? Why were not the original letters preferved
in the book, where the verfes are cited ? What became of the marbles,
which Abdurrahman, then governor of Yemen, moft probably fent to the
Khalifah at Bagdad'? If they be genuine, they prove the people of
Yemen to have been ' herdfmen and warriours, inhabiting a fertile and
' well- watered country full of game, and near a fine fea abounding with
• fi{h, under a monarchical government, and drefled in green filk or
' vefts of needlework,' either of their own manufafture or imported
from India. The meafure of thefe verfes is perfedlly regular, and the
dialedt undiftinguilhable, at leafl by me, from that of Kuraijh ; fo that,
if the Arabian writers were much addicted to literary impoflures, I
ftiould ftrongly fufpeil: them to be modern compofitions on the infta-
bility of human greatnefs, and the confequences of irreligion, illuftrated
by the example of the Himyarick princes ; and the fame may be fuf-
pedted of the firft poem quoted by Schultens, which he afcribes to
an Arab in the age of Solomon.
The fuppofed houfes of the people called Thamud zxe. alfo ftill to be
feen in excavations of rocks j and, in the time of Tabrizi the Gram-
marian, a caftle was extant in Yettien, which bore the name of Alad-
JBAT, an old bard and warriour, who firft, we are told, formed his army,
thence
ON THE ARABS. 45
thence called dlkhamh, in Jive parts, by which arrangement he de-
feated the troops of Himyar in an expedition againft Sanaa.
Of pillars eredled by Sesac, after his invafion of Yemen, we find no
mention in Arabian hiftories ; and, perhaps, the ilory has no more
foundation than another told by the Greeks and adopted by Newton,
that the Arabs worfhipped Urania, and even Bacchus by name,
which, they fay, means great in Arabick ; but where they found fuch
a word, we cannot difcover : it is true, that Beccah fignifies a great
and tumultuous crowd, and, in this fenfe, is one name of the facred
city commonly called Meccah.
The Cdbahy or quadrangular edifice at Meccah, is indifputably fo
ancient, that its original ufe, and the name of its builder, are loft in a
cloud of idle traditions. An Arab told me gravely, that it was raifed
by Abraham, who, as I afTured him, was never there : others afcribe
it, with more probability, to Ismail, or one of his immediate de-
fendants ; but whether it was built as a place of divine worfhip, as a
fortrefs, as a fepulchre, or as a monument of the treaty between the
old pofTefTors of Arabia and the fons of Kidar, antiquaries may dif-
pute, but no mortal can determine. It is thought by Reland to have
been the manjion of fame ancient Patriarch, and revered on that account
by his pojierity ; but the room, in which we now are aflembled, would
contain the whole Arabian edifice ; and, if it were large enough for
the dwelling-houfe of a patriarchal family, it would feem ill adapted to
the paftoral manners of the Kedarites : a Perfian author infifts, that the
true name of Meccah is Mahcadah, or the Temple of the Moon ; but,
although we may fmile at his etymology, we cannot but think it pro-
bable, that the Cabah was originally defigned for religious purpofes.
Three couplets are cited in an Arabick Hiftory of this Building, which,
from their extreme fimplicity, have lefs appearance of impofture than
other
4(3 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE,
other verfes of the fame kind: they are afcribed to As ad, a Tobba, or
king by fuccefjion, who is generally allowed to have reigned in Yemen
an hundred and twenty-eight years before Christ's birth, and they
commemorate, without any poetical imagery, the magnificence of the
prince in covering the holy temple with Jlriped cloth and fine linen, and in
making keys for its gate. This temple, however, the fandiity of which
was reftored byMuHAMMED, had been flrangely profaned at the time
of his birth, when it was ufual to decorate its walls with poems on all
fubjeds, and often on the triumphs oi Arabian gallantry and the praifes
of Grecian wine, which the merchants of Syria brought for fale into
the defer ts.
From the want of materials on the fubjed of Arabian antiquity, we
find it very difficult to fix the Chronology of the Ifmailites with accu-
racy beyond the time of Ad nan, from whom the importer was de-
fcended in the twe}ityfirji degree ; and, although we have genealogies
of Alkamah and other Himyarick bards as high as t\\Q thirtieth de-
gree, or for a period of nine hundred years at leaft, yet we can hardly
depend on them fo far, as to eftablifli a complete chronological fyftem :
by reafoning downwards, however, we may afcertain fome points of
confiderable importance. The univerfal tradition of Yemen is, that
Yoktan, the fon of Eber, firft fettled his family in that country;
which fettlement, by the computation admitted in Europe, muft have
been above three thoujand fix hundred years ago, and nearly at the time,
when the Hindus, under the conduft of Rama, were fubduing the firfl
inhabitants of thefe regions, and extending the Indian Empire from
Ay6dhyh or Audh as far as the ifie of Sinhal or SiVan. According to this
calculation, Nuuman, king of Yemen in the ninth generation from
Eber, was contemporary with Joseph ; and, if a verfe compofed by
that prince, and quoted by Abulfeda, was really preferved, as it
miaht eafiiy have been, by oral tradition, it proves the great antiquity
" ^ of
ON THE ARABS. A^j
of the Arabian language and metre. This is a literal verfion of the
couplet : * When thou, who art in power, condudleft affairs with
* courtefy, thou attaineft the high honours of thofe, who are moft ex-
* alted, and whofe mandates are obeyed.' We are told, that, from an
elegant verb in this diftich, the royal poet acquired the furname of
Ahnuddfer, or the Courteous. Now the reafons for believing this verfe
genuine are its brevity, which made it eafy to be remembered, and the
good fenfe comprized in it, which made it become proverbial ; to
which we may add, that the dialedl is apparently old, and differs in
three words from the idiom of Hejdz : the reafons for doubting are,
that fentences and verfes of indefinite antiquity are fometimes afcribed
by the Arabs to particular perfons of eminence ; and they even go fo
far as to cite a pathetick elegy of Adam himfelf on the death of Abel,
but in very good Arabick and corredl meafure. Such are the doubts,
which neceffarily muft arife on fuch a fubjed: ; yet we have no need of
ancient monuments or traditions to prove all that our analyfis requires,
namely, that the Arabs, both of Hejdz and Yemen, fprang from a ftock
entirely different from that of the Hindus, and that their firft eftablifli-
ments in the refped:ive countries, where we now find them, were
nearly coeval.
I cannot finilh this article without obferving, that, when the King
of Denmark's minifters infl:ru(fled the Danijh travellers to colle<ft hijio-
rical books in Arabick, but not to bufy themfelves with procuring Ara-
bian poems, they certainly were ignorant, that the only monuments of
old Arabian Hiftory are colledlions of poetical pieces and the commen-
taries on them ; that all memorable tranfadlions in Arabia were re-
corded in verfe ; and that more certain fadts may be known by reading
the Hamdfah, the Diicdn of Hudhail, and the valuable work of Obai-
dullah, than by turning over a hundred volumes in profe, unlefs indeed
thofe poems are cited by the hiflorians as their authorities.
IV. The
48 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE,
IV. The manners of the Hejaxi Arabs, which have continued, we
know, from the time of Solomon to the prefent age, were by no
means favourable to the cultivation of <3r/j- ; and, zi iofciences, we have
no reafon to believe, that they were acquainted with any ; for the mere
amufement of giving names to flars, which were ufeful to them in
their paftoral or predatory rambles through the deferts, and in their
obfervations on the weather, can hardly be confidered as a material part
of aftronomy. The only arts, in which they pretended to excellence,
(I except horfemanfliip and military accomplifliments) were poetry and
rhetorick : tliat we have none of their compofitions in profe before the
Koran, may be afcribed, perhaps, to the little fkill, which they feem to
have had, in writing; to their prediledlion in favour of poetical mea-
fure, and to the facility, with which verfes are committed to memory ;
but all their ftories prove, that they were eloquent in a high degree,
and poflefTed wonderful powers of fpeaking without preparation in
flowing and forcible periods. I have never been able to difcover, what
was meaned by their books, called Raivdsim, but fuppofe, that they
were colledtions of their common, or cuftomary, law. Writing was fo
little pradlifed among them, that their old poems, which are now ac-
ceffible to us, may almoft be confidered as originally unwritten ; and I
am inclined to think, that Samuel Johnson's reafoning, on the ex-
treme imperfedtion of unwritten languages, was too general ; fince a
language, that is only fpoken, may neverthelefs be highly polifhed by
a people, who, like the ancient Arabs, make the improvement of their
idiom a national concern, appoint folemn aflemblies for the purpofe of
difplaying their poetical talents, and hold it a duty to exercife their
children in getting by heart their moft approved compofitions.
The people of Temen had poflibly more mechanical arts, and, perhaps,
movt fcience ; but, although their ports mu ft have been the emporia of
confiderable commerce between Egypt and India or part of Perjia, yet
we
ON THE ARABS. 4Q
we have no certain proofs of their proficiency in navigation or even in
manufaftures. That the yirah of the defert had mufical inftruments,
and names for the different notes, and that they were greatly dehghted
with melody, we know from themfelves ; but their lutes and pipes
were probably very fimple, and their mufick, I fufped:, was little more
than a natural and tuneful recitation of their elegiack verfes and love-
fongs. The fingular property of their language, in fhunning compound
words, may be urged, according to Bacon's idea, as a proof, that
they had made no progrefs in arts, * which require, fays he, a variety
* of combinations to exprefs the complex notions arifmg from them ;'
but the Angularity may perhaps be imputed wholly to the genius of the
language, and the tafte of thofe, who fpoke it j fince the old Germans,
who knew no art, appear to have delighted in compound words, which
poetry and oratory, one would conceive, might require as much as any
meaner art whatfoever.
So great, on the whole, was the ftrength of parts or capacity, either
natural or acquired from habit, for which the Arabs were ever dif-
tinguillied, that we cannot be furprized, when we fee that blaze of
genius, which they difplayed, as far as their arms extended, when they
buriL, like their own dyke of Arim, through their ancient limits, and
fpread, like an inundation, over the great empire of Ira?t. That a
race of Tdzh, or Coiirfers as the Perfians call them, * who drank the
* milk of camels and fed on lizards, fliould entertain a thought of fub-
* duing the kingdom of Feridun' was confidered by the General of
Yezdegird's army as the ftrongeft inftance of fortune's levity and
mutability; but Firdausi, a complete mailer oi Afiatick manners, and
Angularly impartial, reprefents the Arabs, even in the age of Feridun,
as * difclaiming any kind of dependence on that monarch, exulting in
* their liberty, delighting in eloquence, adls of liberality, and martial
* achievements, and thus making the whole earth, fays the poet, red as
VOL. I. K * wine
50 THE FOURTH DISCOURSE.
• wine with the blood of their foes, and the air like a foreft of canes with
* their tall fpears.' With fuch a charafter they were likely to conquer
any country, that they could invade ; and, if Alexander had invaded
their dominions, they would unqueftionably have made an obllinate,
and probably a fuccefsful, refiftance.
But I have detained you too long, gentlemen, with a nation, who
have ever been my favourites, and hope at our next anniverfary meeting
to travel with you over a part of Afia, which exhibits a race of men
diftinft both from the Hindus and from the Arabs. In the mean time
it fhall be my care to fuperintend the publication of your tranfadions,
in which, if the learned in Europe have not raifed their expeftations
too high, they will not, I believe, be difappointed : my own imperfed:
eflays I always except j but, though my other engagements have pre-
vented my attendance on your fociety for the greateft part of laft year,
and I have fet an example of that freedom from reftraint, without which
no fociety can flourifh, yet, as my few hours of leifure will now be
devoted to Sanfcrit literature, I cannot but hope, though my chief ob-
jedl be a knowledge of Hindu Law, to make fome difcovery in other
fciences, which I fliall impart with humility, and which you will, I
doubt not, receive with indulgence.
THE
THE FIFTH
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE,
DELIVERED 21 FEBRUARY, 1788.
BY
The president.
J\.T the clofe of my laft addrefs to you, Gentlemen, I declared my
defign of introducing to your notice a people of ^a, who feemed as
different in moft refpeds from the Hindus and Arabs, as thofe two na-
tions had been fhown to differ from each other ; I meaned the people,
whom we call Tartars : but I enter with extreme diffidence on my pre-
fent fubjedl, becaufe I have little knowledge of the Tartarian dialedls ;
and the grofs errours of European writers on Afiatick literature have long
convinced me, that no fatisfadlory account can be given of any nation,
with whofe language we are not perfecflly acquainted. Such evidence,
however, as I have procured by attentive reading and fcrupulous in-
quiries, I will now lay before you, interfperfing fuch remarks as I
could not but make on that evidence, and fubmitting tlie whole to your
impartial decilion.
K 2 Conformably
52 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
Conformably to the method before adopted in defcriblng Arabia and
India, I confider Tartary alfo, for the purpofe of this difcourfe, on
its mofl extenfive fcale, and requeft your attention, whilft I trace the
largefl: boundaries that are affignable to it : conceive a line drawn from
the mouth of the Ohy to that of the Dnieper, and, bringing it back
eaftward acrofs the Eiixine, fo as to include the peninfula of Krim, ex-
tend it along the foot of Caucrfiis, by the rivers Ciir and Aras, to the
Cafpian lake, from the oppofite fliore of which follow the courfe of the
yaihu7i and the chain of Caucafean hills as far as thofe of Imaus :
whence continue the line beyond the C/iinefe wall to the White Moun-
tain and the country of Yetfo ; fkirting the borders of Perjia, India,
China, Corea, but including part of RitJ/ia, with all the diftrifts which
lie between the Glacial fea, and that of Japan. M. De Guignes,
whofe great work on the Huns abounds more in foiid learning than in
rhetorical ornaments, prefents us, however, with a magnificent image
of this wide region ; defcribing it as a ftupendous edifice, the beams
and pillars of which are many ranges of lofty hills, and the dome, one
prodigious mountain, to which the Chinefe give the epithet of CeleJUaly
with a confiderable number of broad rivers flowing down its fides : if
the manfion be fo amazingly fublime, the land around it is proportion-
ably extended, but more wonderfully diverfified ; for fome parts of it
are incrufted with ice, others parched with inflamed air and covered
with a kind of lava j here we meet with immenfe trads of fandy deferts
and foreft;s almoft impenetrable ; there, with gardens, groves, and
meadows, perfumed with muflc, watered by numberlefs rivulets, and
abounding in fruits and flowers ; and, from eaft to wefl:, lie many con-
fiderable provinces, which appear as valleys in comparifon of the hills
towering above them, but in truth are the flat fummits of the higheft
mountains in the world, or at leaft the higheft in Afia. Near one
fourth in latitude of this .extraordinary region is in the fame charming
climate with Greece, Italy, and Provence ; and another fourth in that
of
ON THE TARTARS. 53
of England, Germany, and the northern parts of France ; but the Hy-
perborean countries can have few beauties to recommend them, at leaft
in the prefent ftate of the earth's temperature : to the fouth, on the
frontiers of Iran are the beautiful vales of Soghd with the celebrated
cities of Samarkand and Bokhara ; on thofe of Tibet are the territories
of Cajhghar, Khoten, Chcgil and Khdta, all famed for perfumes and for
the beauty of their inhabitants ; and on thofe of China lies the country
of Chin, anciently a powerful kingdom, which name, like that of
Khdta, has in modern times been given to the whole Chinefe empire,
where fuch an appellation would be thought an infult. We muft not
omit the fine territoiy of 'Tancut, which was known to the Greeks by
the name of Serica, and confidered by them as the farthefl eaftern
extremity of the habitable globe.
Scythia feems to be the general name, which the ancient Europeans
gave to aS' much as they knew of the country thus bounded and de-
fcribed ; but, whether that word be derived, as Pliny feems to inti-
mate, from Sacai, a people known by a fimilar name to the Greeks
and Perjians, or, as Bryant imagines, from Cuthia, or, as Colonel
Vallancey believes, from words denoting navigation, or, as it might
have been fuppofed, from a Greek root implying wrath and ferocity,
this at leaft is certain, that as India, China, Perfia, yapan, are not ap-
pellations of thofe countries in the languages of the nations, who in-
habit them, fo neither Scythia nor Tartary are names, by which the
inhabitants of the country now under our confideration have ever dif-
tinguiflied themfelves. Tdtdrijidn is, indeed, a word ufed by the
Perfians for the fouth-weftern part of Scythia, where the mufk-deer is
faid to be common ; and the name Tatar is by fome confidered as that
of a particular tribe ; by others, as that of a fmall river only -, while
Tiirdn, as oppofed to Iran, feems to mean the ancient dominion of
Afra'sia'b to the north and eaft of the Oxus. There is nothing more
idle
54 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
idle than a debate concerning names, which after all are of little confe-
quence, when our ideas are diftind: without them : having given, there-
fore, a correal notion of the country, which I propofed to examine, I
lliall not fcruple to call it by the general name of Tartary ; though I
am confcious of ufing a term equally improper in the pronunciation and
the application of it.
Tartary then, which contained, according to Pliny, an innumerable
multitude of nations, by whom the reft of yljia and all Europe has in
different ages been over-run, is denominated, as various images have
prefented themfelves to various fancies, the great hive of the northern
fwarms, the niirfery of irrefifiible legions, and, by a ftronger metaphor,
thefoundery of the human race; but M. Bailly, a wonderfully inge-
nious man and a very lively writer, feems firft to have confidered it as
the cradle of our [pedes, and to have fupported an opinion, that the whole
ancient world was enlightened by fciences brought from the moft nor-
thern parts of Scythia, particularly from the banks of the fenifea, or
from the Hyperborean regions : all the fables of old Greece, Italy, Perfia,
India, he derives from the north ; and it muft be owned, that he
maintains his paradox with acutenefs and learning. Great learning and
great acutenefs, together with the charms of a moft engaging ftyle,
were indeed neceflary to render even tolerable a fyftem, which places
an earthly paradife, the gardens of Hefperus, the iflands of the Macares,
the groves of Rlyfium, if not oi Eden, the heaven of Indra, the Pe-
rijlan, or fairy-land, of the Perfian poets, with its city of diamonds and
its country of Shddcam, fo named from Pleafure and Love, not in any
climate, which the common fenfe of mankind confiders as the feat of
delights, but beyond the mouth of the Oby, in the Frozen Sea, in a
region equalled only by that, where the wild imagination of Dante led
him to fix the worft of criminals in a ftate of punifliment after death,
and of which he could not, he fays, even think without Jlnvering. A
very
ON THE TARTARS. 55
very curious pafTage in a tradt of Plutarch on the figure in the Moon s
orb, naturally induced M. Bailly to place Ogygia in the north, and he
concludes that ifland, as others have concluded rather fallacioufly, to
be the Atlantis o^'^i.kto, but is at a lofs to determine, whether it was
I/eland or Greenland, Spitzberg or New Zembla : among fo many charms
it was difficult, indeed, to give a preference ; but our philofopher,
though as much perplexed by an option of beauties as the fhepherd of
Ida, feems on the whole to think Zembla the moft worthy of the
golden fruit ; becaufe it is indifputably an ifland, and lies oppofite to a
gulph near a continent, from which a great number of rivers defcend
into the ocean. He appears equally diflreffed among five nations, real
and imaginary, to fix upon that, v/hich the Greeks named Atlantes ;
and his conclufion in both cafes muft remind us of the fliowman at
Kton, who, having pointed out in his box all the crowned heads of the
world, and being afked by the fchoolboys, who looked through the
glafs, which was the Emperor, which the Pope, which the Sultan,
and which the Great Mogul, anfwered eagerly, * which you plcafe,
• young gentlemen, which you pleafe.' His letters, however, to Vol-
taire, in which he unfolds his new fyftem to his friend, whom he
had not been able to convince, are by no means to be derided j and his
general propofition, that arts and fciences had their fource in Tartary,
deferves a longer examination than can be given to it in this difcourfe: I
fhall, neverthelefs, with your permiffion, flwrtly difcufs the queftion
under the feveral heads, that will prefent themfelves in order.
Although we may naturally fuppofe, that the numberlefs commu-
nities of Tartars, fome of whom are eflabliihed in great cities, and
fome encamped on plains in ambulatory manfions, which they remove
from pafture to pafture, muft be as different in their features as in
their dialers, yet, among thofe who have not emigrated into another
country and mixed with another nation, we may difcern a family like-
nefs,
56 ■ THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
nefs, efpecially in their eyes and countenance, and in that configuration
of lineaments, which we generally call a Tartar face j but, without
making anxious inquiries, whether all the inhabitants of the vaft region
before defcribed have fimilar features, we may conclude from thofe,
whom we have feen, and from the original portraits of Taimu'r and
his defcendants, that the Tartars in general differ wholly in com-
plexion and countenance from the Hindus and from the Arabs ; an ob-
fervation, which tends in fome degree to confirm the account given by
modern Tartars themfelves of' their defcent from a common anceftor.
Unhappily their lineage cannot be proved by authentick pedigrees or
hiftorical monuments J for all their writings extant, even thofe in the
Mogul dialtS:, are long fubfequent to the time of Muhammed ; nor is
it poflible to diftinguilh their genuine traditions from thofe of the
Arabs, whofe religious opinions they have in general adopted. At
the beginning of the fourteenth century, Khwdjah Rashi'd, furnamed
Fad'lu'll AH, a native of Kazvm ; compiled his account of the Tartars
and Mongals from the papers of one Pu'la'd, whom the great grandfon
of HoLAcu' had fent into Tdtarijian for the fole purpofe of colledling
hiflorical information ; and the commiffion itfelf fhows, how little the
Tartarian Princes really knew of their own origin. From this work
of Rashi'd, and from other materials, Abu''lgha'zi', King of
Khwdrezvi, compofed in the Mogul language his Genealogical Hijlory,
which, having been purchafed from a merchant of Bokhara by fome
SwediJJj officers, prifoners of war in Siberia, has found its way into
feveral European tongues : it contains much valuable matter, but, like
all Muhammedan hiftories, exhibits tribes or nations as individual
fovereigns ; and, if Baron De Tott had not flrangely neglecfted to pro-
cure a copy of the Tartarian hiftory, for the original of which he un-
neceffarily offered a large fum, we fliould probably have found, that it
begins with an account of the deluge taken from the Koran, and
proceeds to rank TuRc, Chi'n, Tata'r, and Mongal, among the
fons
ON THE TARTARS 5y
fons of Ya'fet. The genuine traditional hiilory of the Tartars, in
all the books that I have infpeded, feems to begin with Oghu'z, as
that of the Hindus does with Ra'ma : they place their miraculous
Hero and Patriarchyowr thoufand yt^ivs before Chengiz Kha'n, who
was born in the year 1 1 64, and with whofe reign their hiftorical period
commences. It is rather furprizing, that M. Bailly, who makes
frequent appeals to Etymological arguments, has not derived Ogyges
from Oghu'z and Atlas from Altai, or the Golden mountain o£ Tar-
tary : the Greek terminations might have been rejedled from both
words ; and a mere tranfpofition of letters is no difficulty with an
Etymologift.
My remarks in this addrefs, gentlemen, will be confined to the
period preceding Chengiz ; and, although the learned labours of M.
DeGuignes and the fathers Visdelou, Demailla, and Gaubil,
who have made an incomparable ufe of their Chinefe literature, exhibit
probable accounts of the Tartars from a very early age, yet the old
hiftorians of China were not only foreign, but generally hoftile, to them,
and for both thofe reafons, either through ignorance or malignity, may
be fufped:ed of mifreprefenting their tranfaftions : if they fpeak truth,
the ancient hiftory of the Tartars prefents us, like moft other hiftories,
with a feries of affaffinations, plots, treafons, maflacres, and all the na-
tural fruits of felfifli ambition. I fliould have no inclination to give you
a fketch of fuch horrors, even if the occafion called for it ; and will
barely obferve, that the firft king of the Hyumnu s or Huns began his
reign, according to Visdelou, about three thouf and five hundred and
fixty years ago, not long after the time fixed in my former difcourfes
for the firft regular eftablifliments of the Hindus and Arabs in their
feveral countries.
VOL. I. L 1. Our
58 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
I. Our firft inquiry, concerning the languages and letters of the Tar-
tars, prefents us with a deplorable void, or with a profpeft as barren
and dreary as that of their deferts. The Tartars, in general, had no
literature : (in this point all authorities appear to concur) the Turcs had no
letters : the Hufts, according to Procopius, had not even heard of
them: the magnificent Chengiz, whofe Empire included an area of
near eighty fquare degrees, could find none of his own Mongals, as the
beft authors inform us, able to write his difpatches ; and Tai'mu'r,
a favao-e of flrong natural parts and paffionately fond of hearing hifto-
ries read to him, could himfelf neither write nor read. It is true, that
Ibnu Arabshah mentions a fet of charadlers called Dtlberjin, which
were ufed in Khata : ' he had feen them, he fays, and found them to
* confift o£ forty-one letters, a diftindt fymbol being appropriated to each
* long and fliort vowel, and to each confonant hard or foft, or otherwife
* varied in pronunciation ;' but K/idta was in fouthern Tartary on the
confines of India ; and, from his defcription of the charaders there in
ufe, we cannot but fufped: them to have been thofe of Tibet, which
are manifeftly Indian, bearing a greater refemblance to thofe of Bengal
than to De'vanagar). The learned and eloquent y^rab adds, « that the
' Tatars of Kbdta write, in the Dilberjin letters, all their tales and
' hiftories, their journals, poeriis, and mifcellanies, their diplomas, re-
* cords of ftate and juftice, the lav/s of Chengiz, their publick re-
* gifters and their compofitions of every fpecies :' if this be true, the
people of Klidtd muft have been a polifhed and even a lettered nation;
and it may be true, without affefting the general pofition, that the
Tartars were illiterate; but Ibnu Arabsha'h was a profefled rheto-
rician, and it is impoflible to read the original paflage, without full
convidlion that his objedl in writing it, was to difplay his power of
words in a flowing and modulated period. He fays further, that in
Jagbatai the people of Oighiir, as he calls them, ' have a fyftem of
'fourteen letters only, denominated from themfelves Oighurl;' and thofe
are
ON THE TARTARS. 59
are the charaders, which the Mongals are fuppofed by moil authors to
have borrowed: Abu'l'ghazi' tells us only, that Chengiz employed
the natives of Eighur as excellent penmen ; but the Chinefe affert, that
he was forced to employ them, becaufe he had no writers at all among
his natural-born fubjedls ; and we are affured by many, that Kublaik-
ha'n ordered letters to be invented for his nation by a I'ibetian, whom he
rewarded with the dignity o? chiti Latna. The fmall nnmhtr o^ Eighuri
letters might induce us to believe, that they were Zend or Pahlavt,
which muft have been current in that country, when it was governed
by the fons of Feridu'n ; and, if the alphabet afcribed to the Eighti-
rians by M. Des Hautesrayes be correift, we may fafely decide, that
in many of its letters it refembles both the Zend and the Syriack, with
a remarkable difference in the mode of connefting them ; but, as we
can fcarce hope to fee a genuine fpecimen of them, our doubt muft
remain in regard to their form and origin : the page, exhibited by Hyde
as Khatayan writing, is evidently a fort of broken Ciifick ; and the fine
manufcript at Oxford, from which it was taken, is more probably a
Mendean work on fome religious fubjed: than, as he imagined, a code
of Tartarian laws. That very learned man appears to have made a
worfe miflake in giving us for Mongal charaders a page of writing,
which has the appearance of Japanefe, or mutilated Chinefe, letters.
If the Tartars in general, as we have every reafon to believe, had no
written memorials, it cannot be thought wonderful, that their languages,
like thofe of America, fliould have been in perpetual fluctuation, and
that more than fifty dialedts, as Hyde had been credibly informed,
fliould be fpoken between Mofcow and China, by the many kindred
tribes or their feveral branches, which are enumerated by Abu'lgha'zi'.
What thofe dialedls are, and whether they really fprang from a common
flock, we fliall probably learn from Mr. Pallas, and other indefa-
tigable men employed by the Ri/Jian court ; and it is from the RuJ}:ans,
that
()0 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
that we muft expedl the moft accurate information concerning their
uijiatick fubjedrs : I perfuade myfelf, that, if their inquiries be judici-
oufly made and faithfully reported, the refult of them will prove, that
all the languages properly Tartarian arofe from one common fource ;
excepting always the jargons of fuch wanderers or mountaineers, as,
having long been divided from the main body of the nation, muft in a
courfe of ages have framed feparate idioms for themfelves. The only
Tartarian language, of which I have any knowledge, is the Turkijh of
Conjiantinople, which is however fo copious, that whoever (hall know
it perfedtly, will eafily underiland, as we are affured by intelligent
authors, the dialedls oi Tatar iji an ; and we may colledt from Abu'l-
gha'zi', that he would find little difficulty in the Calmac and the
Mogul : I will not offend your ears by a dry catalogue of fimilar words
in thofe different languages } but a careful invefligation has convinced
me, that, as the Indian and Arabian tongues are feverally defcended
from a common parent, fo thofe of Tartary might be traced to one
ancient flem effentially differing from the two others. It appears, in-
deed, from a flory told by Abu"lgha'zi', that the Virats and the
Mongals could not underfland each other ; but no more can the Danes
and the Englijh, yet their dialedls beyond a doubt are branches of the
famie Gothic k tree. The dialed: of the Moguls, in which fome hiflo-
ries of Taimu r and his defcendants were originally compofed, is
called in India, where a learned native fet me right when I ufed another
word, Ttircl -, not that it is precifely the fame with the Turkip of the
Othfndnlus, but the two idioms differ, perhaps, lefs then Swedijh and
German, or Spanijlo and Portuguefe, and certainly lefs than Welch and
L'ijh: in hope of afcertaining this point, I have long fearched in vain
for the original works afcribed to Taimu'r and Ba'berj but all the
Moguls, with whom I have converfed in this country, refemble the
crow in one of their popular fables, who, having long affedled to walk
like a pheafant, was unable after all to acquire the gracefulnefs of that
elegant
ON THE TARTARS. (jl
elegant bird, and in the mean time unlearned his own natural gait :
they have not learned the dialedt of Perfia, but have wholly forgotten
that of their anceftors. A very confiderable part of the old Tartarian
language, which in AJia would probably have been loft, is happily pre-
ferved in Europe ; and, if the groundwork of the weftern Ttirkijh, when
fcparated from the Perjian and Arabick, with which it is embellifhed,
be a branch of the loft Oghuzian tongue, I can aflert with confidence,
that it has not the leaft refemblance either to Arabick or Sanfcrit, and
muft have been invented by a race of men wholly diftincfl from the
Arabs or Hindus, This fad: alone overfets the fyftem of M. Bailly,
who confiders the Sanfcrit, of which he gives in feveral places a moft
erroneous account, as * a fine monument of his primeval Scythians, the
* preceptors of mankind and planters of a fublime philofophy even in India ;'
for he holds it an inconteftable truth, that a language, which is dead,
fuppofes a nation, which is defrayed ; and he feems to think fuch reafon-
ing perfe<ftly decifive of the queftion, without having recourfe to aftro-
nomical arguments or the fpirit of ancient inftitutions : for my part,
I defire no better proof than that, which the language of the Brdh-
mans affords, of an immemorial and total difference between the
Savages of the Mountains, as the old Chinefe juftly called the 'Tartars,
and the ftudious, placid, contemplative inhabitants of thefe Indian plains.
II. The geographical reafoning of M. Bailly may, perhaps, be
thought equally ftiallow, if not inconfiftent in fome degree with itfelf.
* An adoration of the fun and of fire, fays he, muft neceffarily have
* arifen in a cold region : therefore, it muft have been foreign to India,
* Perfia, Arabia; therefore, it, muft have been derived from Tartary.'
No man, I believe, who has travelled in winter through Bahar, or has
even paff!ed a cold feafon at Calcutta within the tropick, can doubt that
the folar warmth is often defirable by all, and might have been con-
fidered as adorable by the ignorant, in thefe climates, or that the return
of
62 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
of fpring deferves all the falutations, which it receives from the Perjian
and Indian poets ; not to rely on certain hiflorical evidence, that An-
TARAH, a celebrated warriour and bard, adlually periflied with cold on
a mountain oi Arabia. To meet, however, an objedlion, which inight
naturally be made to the voluntary fettlement, and amazing population,
of his primitive race in the icy regions of the north, he takes refuge
in the hypothefis of M. Buffon, who imagines, that our wh9le globe
was at firft of a white heat, and has been gradually cooling from the
poles to the equator ; fo that the Hyperborean countries had once a
delightful temperature, and Siberia itfelf was even hotter than the climate
of our temperate zones, that is, was in too hot a climate, by his firft pro-
pofition, for the primary worfliip of the fun. That the temperature of
countries has not fuftained a change in the lapfe of ages, I will by no
means infift ; but we can hardly reafon conclulively from a variation of
temperature to the cultivation and diftufion of fcience : if as many fe-
male elephants and tigrefTes, as we now find in Be7igal, had formerly
littered in the Siberian forefts, and if their young, as the earth cooled,
had fought a genial warmth in the climates of the fouth, it would not
follow, that other favages, who migrated in the fame diredlion and on
the fame account, brought religion and philofophy, language and writ-
ing, art and fcience, into the fouthern latitudes.
We are told by Abu"lgha'zi', that the primitive religion of human
creatures, or the pure adoration of One Creator, prevailed in Tartary
during the firfl generations from Ya'fbt, but was extind: before the
birth of Oghuz, who reftored it in his dominions; that, fome ages
after him, the Mongah and the T^iircs relapfed into grofs idolatry ; but
that Chengiz was a Theift, and, in a converfation with the Muham-
medan Doftors, admitted their arguments for the being and attributes
of the Deity to be unanfwerable, while he contefhed the evidence of
their Prophet's legation. From old Grecian authorities we learn, that
the
ON THE TARTARS. 03
the Majfagetce worfliipped the fun ; and the narrative of an embaffy
from Justin to the Khdkan, or Emperor, who then refided in a fine
vale near the fource of the IrtiJJo, mentions the Tartarian ceremony of
purifying the Roman Ambafiadors by conducing them between iwojires :
the Tartars of that age are reprefented as adorers of the four elements,
and behevers in an invifible fpirit, to whom they facrificed bulls and
rams. Modern travellers relate, that, in the feftivals of feme Tartarian
tribes, they pour a few drops of a confecrated liquor on the ftatues of
their Gods ; after which an attendant fprinkles a little of what remains
three times toward the fouth in honour of fire, toward the weft and
eaft in honour of water and air, and as often toward the north in ho-
nour of the earth, which contained the reliques of their deceafed an-
ceflors : now all this may be very true, without proving a national affi-
nity between the Tartars and Hindus ; for the Arabs adored the planets
and the powers of nature, the Arabs had carved images, and made
libations on a black ftonc, the Arabs turned in prayer to different
quarters of the heavens ; yet we know with certainty, that the Arabs
are a diftind: race from the Tartars ; and we might as well infer, that
they were the fame people, becaufe they had each their Nomades, or
wanderers for pajlure, and becaufe the Turcmans, defcribed by Ibnu-
ARABSh'ah and by him called Tatar s, are, like moji Arabian tribes,
pafloral and warlike, hofpitable and generous, wintering and fummer-
ing on different plains, and rich in herds and flocks, horfes and camels j
but this agreement in manners proceeds from the fimilar nature of
their feveral deferts and their fimilar choice of a free rambling life,
without evincing a community of origin, which they could fcarce
have had without preferving fome remnant at leaft of a common lan-
guage.
Many Lamas, we are affured, or Priefls of Buddha, have been
found fettled in Siberia -, but it can hardly be doubted, that the Lamas
had
(34 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
had travelled thither from Tibet, whence it is more than probable, that
the religion of the Bauddhds was imported into fouthern, or Chinefe,
Tartary ; fince we know, that rolls of Tihetian writing have been
brought even from the borders of the Cafpian. The complexion of
Buddha himfelf, which, according to the Hindus, was between white
and ruddy, would perhaps have convinced M. Bailly, had he known
the Indian tradition, that the laft great legiflator and God of the Eafl
was a Tartar ; but the Chinefe confider him as a native of India, the
Brdhmans infift, that he was born in a foreft near Gayd, and many
reafons may lead us to fufpedl, that his religion was carried from the
weft and the fouth to thofe eaftern and northern countries, in which it
prevails. On the whole we meet with few or no traces in Scythia of
Indian rites and fuperftitions, or of that poetical mythology, with which
the Sanfcrit poems are decorated j and we may allow the Tartars to
have adored the Sun with more reafon than any fouthern people, with-
out admitting them to have been the fole original inventors of that
univerfal folly : we may even doubt the originality of their veneration
for the four elements, which forms a principal part of the ritual intro-
duced by Zer'atusht, a native of 7?rt/ in Perfia, born in the reign
of GusHTASP, whofe fon Pash'uten is believed by the Pdrjt's
to have refided long in Tartary at a place called Cangidiz, where a
magnificent palace is faid to have been built by the father of Cyrus,
and where the Perfian prince, who was a zealot in the new faith,
would naturally have difleminated its tenets among the neighbouring
lartars.
Of any Philofophy, except natural Ethicks, which the rudeft fo-
ciety requires and experience teaches, we find no more vefliges in
yjfatick Scythia than in ancient Arabia ; nor would the name of a Phi-
lofopher and a Scythian have been ever connected, if Anacharsis had
not vifited Athens and hydia for that inftru(ftion, which his birthplace
could
ON THE TARTARS. Q5
Could not have afforded him : but An ach arsis was the fon of a Grecian
woman, who had taught him her language, and he foon learned to
defpife his own. He was unqueftionably a man of a found underftand-
ing and fine parts ; and, among the lively fayings, which gained him
the reputation of a wit even in Greece, it is related by Diogenes La-
ERTius, that, when an Athenian reproached him with being a Scythian,
he anfwered : * my country is, indeed, a difgrace to me, but thou art
* a difgrace to thy country.' What his country was, in regard to man-
ners and civil duties, we may learn from his fate in it ; for when, on
his return from Athens, he attempted to reform it by introducing the
wife laws of his friend Solon, he was killed on a hunting party with
an arrow fhot by his own brother, a Scythian Chieftain. Such was the
philofophy of M. Bailly's Atlantes, the firft and moft enlightened of
nations ! We are aflured, however, by the learned author of the Da-
bijian, that the Tartars under Chengiz and his defcendants were lovers
of truth J and would not even preferve their lives by a violation of it :
De Guignes afcribes the fame veracity, the parent of all virtues, to
the Huns ; and Strabo, who might only mean to lafh the Greeks by
praifing Barbarians, as Horace extolled the wandering Scythians merely
to fatirize his luxurious countrymen, informs us, that the nations of
Scythia deferved the praife due to wifdom, heroick friendfhip, and
juftice; and this praife we may readily allow them on his authority,
without fuppofing them to have been the preceptors of mankind.
As to the laws of Zamolxis, concerning whom we know as little as
of the Scythian Deucalion, or of Abaris the Hyperborean, and to
whofe ftory even Herodotus gave no credit, I lament, for many rea-
fons, that, if ever they exifted, they have not been preferved : it is
certain, that a fyftem of laws, called Ydfdc, has been celebrated in
Tartary fince the time of Chengiz, who is faid to have republiflied
them in his empire, as his inftitutions were afterwards adopted and
VOL. I. M enforced
QQ THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
enforced by Taimu'r ; but they feem to have been a common, or
traditionary, law, and were probably not reduced into writing, till
Chengiz had conquered a nation, who were able to write.
III. Had the religious opinions and allegorical fables of the Hindus
been adlually borrowed from Scythia, travellers muft have difcovered in
that country fome ancient monuments of them, fuch as pieces of grot-
tefque fculpture, images of the Gods and Avatars, and infcriptions on
pillars or in caverns, analogous to thofe, which remain in every part
of the weftern peninfula, or to thofe, which many of us have feen in
Bahar and at Bandras ; but (except a few detached idols) the only
great monuments of Tartarian antiquity are a line of ramparts on the
weft and eaft of the Cafpian, afcribed indeed by ignorant Mufelmans to
Tdjuj and Mdjuj, or Gog and Magog, that is to the Scythians, but ma-
nifeftly raifed by a very different nation in order to ftop their predatory
inroads through the pafles of Caiicafus. The Chinefe wall was built or
finifhed, on a fimilar conftrudion and for a fimilar purpofe, by an Em-
peror, who died only two hundred and ten years before the beginning
of our era j and the other mounds were very probably conftrudled by
the old Perjians, though, like many works of unknown origin, they
are given to Secander, not the Macedonian, but a more ancient Hero
fuppofed by fome to have been Jemshi'd. It is related, that pyramids
and tombs have been found in Tdtdrijlan, or weftern Scythia, and fome
remnants of edifices in the lake Saifan -, that veftiges of a deferted city
have been recently difcovered by the Rujjians near the Cafpian fea, and
the Mountain of Eagles j and that golden ornaments and utenfils,
figures of elks and other quadrupeds in metal, weapons of various
kinds, and even implements for mining, but made of copper inftead of
iron, have been dug up in the country of the TJJmdes ; whence M.
Bailly infers, with great reafon, the high antiquity of that people :
but the high antiquity of the Tartars, and their eftablifhment in that
country
ON THE TARTARS. 67
country near four thoufand years ago, no man difputes ; we are inquir-
ing into their ancient religion and philofophy, which neither ornaments
of gold, nor tools of copper, will prove to have had an affinity with
the religious rites and the fciences of Inc/ia. The golden utenfils might
poffibly have been fabricated by the Tartars themfelves ; but it is pof-
fible too, that they were carried from Rome or from C/bhia, whence
occalional embaffies were fent to the Kings of Eig/iiir. Towards the
end of the tenth century the Chinefe Emperor dilpatched an ambaf-
fador to a Prince, named Ersla'n, which, in the Turkijh of Conjlan-
tinople, fignifies a lioriy who relided near the Golden Mountain in the
fame ftation, perhaps, where the Romans had been received in the mid-
dle of the fixth century j the Chinefe on his return home reported the
Eighuris to be a grave people, with fair complexions, diligent workmen,
and ingenious artificers not only in gold, filver, and iron, but in jafper
and fine ftones ; and the Romans had before defcribed their magnificent
reception in a rich palace adorned with Chinefe manufaftures : but thefe
times were comparatively modern ; and, even if we fliould admit, that
the Eighiirls, who are faid to have been governed for a period of two
thoufand years by an I'deciit, or fovereign of their own race, were in
fome very early age a literary and polifhed nation, it would prove nothing
in favour of the Huns, Turcs, Mongals, and other favages to the north
of Pekin, who feem in all ages, before Muhammed, to have been
equally ferocious and illiterate.
Without actual infpeftion of the manufcripts, that have been found
near the Cafpian, it would be impofTible to give a correal opinion con-
cerning them ; but one of them, defcribed as written on blue lilky
paper in letters of gold and filver not unlike Hebrew, was probably a
Tibetian compofition of the fame kind with that, which lay near the
fource of the Irtijh, and of which Cassiano, I believe, made the firft
accurate verfion: another, if we may judge from the defcription of it,
was
68 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
was probably modern Turktjh ; and none of them could have been of
great antiquity.
IV. From ancient monuments, therefore, we have no proof, that the
Tartars were themfelves well-inftrudled, much lefs that they inflrudted
the world -, nor have we any ftronger reafon to conclude from their ge-
neral manners and charadler, that they had made an early proficiency
in arts and fciences : even of poetry, the mort: univerfal and mofl: na-
tural of the fine arts, we find no genuine fpecimens afcribed to them,
except fome horrible warfongs exprefled in Ferjian by Ali' of Tezd,
and pofTibly invented by him. After the conqueft of Ferfia by the
Mongah, their princes, indeed, encouraged learning, and even made
aftronomical obfervations at Samarkand ; as the Turcs became polifhed
by mixing with the Perjians and Arabs, though their very tiature, as
one of their own writers confelles, had before been like an incurable dif-
temper, and their minds clouded with ignorance : thus alfo the Man-
cheu monarchs of China have been patrons of the learned and ingenious,
and the Emperor Tien-Long is, if he be now living, a fine Chinefe
poet. In all thefe inftances the Tartars have refembled the Romans,
who, before they had fubdued Greece, were little better than tigers in
war, and Fauns or Sylvans in fcience and art.
Before I left Europe, I had infifled in converfation, that the Tuzuc,
tranflated by Major Davy, was never written by Taimu'r himfelf,
at leaft not as C^sar wrote his commentaries, for one very plain
reafon, that no Tartarian king of his age could write at all ; and, in
fupport of my opinion, I had cited Ibnu Arabsha'h, who, though
juftly hoftile to the favage, by whom his native city, Damafcus, had
been ruined, yet praifes his talents and the real greatnefs of his mind,
but adds : " He was wholly illiterate ; he neither read nor wrote any
" thing i and he knew nothing of Arabick , though of Ferfian, Turkifi,
" and
ON THE TARTARS. 69
** and the Mogul dialed, he knew as much as was fufficlent for his
" purpofe, and no more : he ufed with pleafure to hear hiftories read
" to him, and fo frequently heard the fame book, that he was able by
" memory to corredt an inaccurate reader." This pafTage had no effedt
on the tranflator, whom great and learned men in India had ajfuredy it
feems, that the work was anthentick, by which he meaned compofed by
the conqueror himfelf: but the great in this country might have been
unlearned, or the learned might not have been great enough to anfwer
any leading queftion in a manner that oppofed the declared inclination
of a Britijh inquirer; and, in either cafe, fince no witneffes are named,
fo general a reference to them will hardly be thought conclufive evidence.
On my part, I will name a Mufelman, whom we all know, and who
has enough both of greatnefs and of learning to decide the queftion both
impartially and fatisfadlorily : the Nawwab Mozaffer Jang informed
me of his own accord, that no man of fenfe in Hindujlan believed the
work to have been compofed by Taimu'r, but that his favourite, fur-
named Hindu Sha'h, was known to have written that book and others
afcribed to his patron, after many confidential difcourfes with the Emtr,
and, perhaps, nearly in the Prince's words as well as in his perfon ; a
ftory, which Ali' of Yezd, who attended the court of Taimu'r, and
has given us a flowery panegyrick inftead of a hiftory, renders highly
probable, by confirming the latter part of the Arabian account, and by
total filence as to the literary productions of his mafter. It is true,
that a very ingenious but indigent native, whom Davy fupported, has
given me a written memorial on the fubjeft, in which he mentions
Taimu r as the author of two works in Turkifi ', but the credit of his
information is overfet by a ftrange apocryphal ftory of a king of Yemen,
who invaded, he fays, the Emir's dominions, and in whofe library the
manufcript was afterwards found, and tranflated by order of Ali'shi'r,
firft minifter of Taimu'r's grandfon ; and Major Davy himfelf, be-
fore he departed from Bengal, told me, that he was greatly perplexed
by
;0 THE FIFTH DISCOURSE,
by finding in a very accurate and old copy of the Tt/zuc, which he de-
figned to repubUfli with confiderable additions, a particular account,
written unquejlmiably by Taimu'r, of his own death. No evidence,
therefore, has been adduced to fhake my opinion, that, the Moguls and
Tartars, before their conqueft of India and Perfia, were wholly unlet-
tered ; although it may be poflible, that, even without art or fcience,
they had, like the Hicns, both warriours and lawgivers in their own
country fome centuries before the birth of Christ.
If learning was ever anciently cultivated in the regions to the north
of India, the feats of it, I have reafon to fufped, muft have been
Eighiir, Capgbar, Khata, Chin, Tanciit, and other countries of Chi-
nefe I'artary, which lie between the thirty-fifth and forty-fifth degrees
of northern latitude; but I fhall, in another difcourfe, produce my
reafons for fuppofing, that thofe very countries were peopled by a race
allied to the Hindus, or enlightened at leaft by their vicinity to India
and China; yet in Tanciit, which by fome is annexed to Tibet, and even
among its old inhabitants, the Seres, we have no certain accounts of
uncommon talents or great improvements : they were famed, indeed,
for the faithful difcharge of moral duties, for a pacifick difpofition, and
for that longevity, which is often the reward of patient virtues and a calm
temper ; but they are faid to have been wholly indifferent, in former
ages, to the elegant arts and even to commerce ^ though Fadlu'llah
had been informed, that, near the clofe of the thirteenth century, many
branches of natural philofophy were cultivated in Cam-cheu, then the
metropolis of Serica.
We may readily believe thofe, who afllire us, that fome tribes of
wandering "Tartars had real fkill in applying herbs and minerals to the
purpofes of medicine, and pretended to fkill in magick ; but the ge-
neral charadler of their nation feems to have been this : they were
profefTed
ON THE TARTARS, 7I
profeffed hunters or fifhers, dwelling on that account in forefts or near
great rivers, under huts or rude tents, or in waggons drawn by their
cattle from ftation to flation ; they were dextrous archei'S, excellent
horfemen, bold combatants, appearing often to flee in diforder for the
fake of renewing their attack with advantage ; drinking the milk of
mares, and eating the flefli of colts ; and thus in many refpedls re-
fembling the old ylrabs, but in nothing more than in their love of in-
toxicating liquors, and in nothing lefs than in a tafte for poetry and the
improvement of their language.
Thus has it been proved, and, in my humble opinion, beyond con-
troverfy, that the far greater part of AJia has been peopled and imme-
morially poiTefTed by three confiderable nations, whom, for want of
better names, we may call Hindus, Arabs, and Tartars ; each of them
divided and fubdivided into an infinite number of branches, and all of
them fo different in form and features, language, manners, and religion,
that, if they fprang originally from a common root, they mufl have
been feparated for ages : whether more than three primitive flocks can
be found, or, in other words, whether the Chmefe, Japanefe, and Per-
Jians, are entirely diflindl from them, or formed by their intermixture,
I fhall hereafter, if your indulgence to me continue, diligently inquire.
To what conclufions thefe inquiries will lead, I cannot yet clearly dif-
cern ; but, if they lead to truth, we fhall not regret our journey through
this dark region of ancient hiflory, in which, while we proceed flep by
flep, and follow every glimmering of certain light, that prefents itfelf,
we mufl beware of thofe falfe rays and luminous vapours, which mif-
lead Afiatick travellers by an appearance of water, but are found on a
near approach to be deferts of fand.
THE SIXTH
DISCOURSE;
O.V THE
PERSIANS,
DELIVERED 19 FEBRUARY, lySQ.
GENTLEMEN,
J. TURN with delight from the vafl mountains and barren deferts of
Turan, over which we travelled laft year with no perfedl knowledge
of our courfe, and requeft you now to accompany me on a literary jour-
ney through one of the moft celebrated and moft beautiful countries in
the world ; a country, the hiftory and languages of which, both ancient
and modern, I have long attentively ftudied, and on which I may
without arrogance promife you more pofitive information, than I could
poffibly procure on a nation fo difunited and fo unlettered as the Tar-
tars : I mean that, which Europeans improperly call Perjia, the name
df a fmgle province being applied to the whole Empire of Iran, as it
is correftly denominated by the prefent natives of it, and by all the
learned Miijelmans, who refide in thefe BritiJIo territories. To give you
an idea of its largeft boundaries, agreeably to my former mode of de-
fcribing India, Arabia, and Tartary, between which it lies, let u5
VOL. I. N begin
74 THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
begin with the fource of the great AJfyrian flream, Euphrates, (as tlie
Greeks, according to their cuftom, were pleafed to mifcall the ForatJ
and thence delcend to its mouth in the Green Sea, or Perjian Gulf,
including in our line fome confidsrable diftriifls and towns on both fides
the river ; then coafling Perfia, properly fo named, and other Iranian
provinces, we come to the delta of the Sindhic or Indus ; whence
afcending to the mountains of CaJJ.ig/jar, we difcover its fountains and
thofe of the Jai/jun, down which we are conducfted to the Cqfpian, which
formerly perhaps it entered, though it lofe itfelf now in the fands and lakes
of Khwdrezm : we next are led from the fea of Khozar, by the banks of
the Cur, or Cyrus, and along the Caucafean ridges, to the fliore of the
Euxine, and thence, by the feveral Grecian feas, to the point, whence we
took our departure, at no confiderable diftance from the Mediterranean.
We cannot but include the lower AJia within this outline, becaufe it was
unqueftionably a part of the Perfian, if not of the old AJjyrian, Empire ;
for we know, that it was under the dominion of Caikhosrau ; and
DiODORUS, we find, aflerts, that the kingdom of Troas was dependent
on Ajfyria, fince Priam implored and obtained fuccours from his
Emperor Teutames, whofe name approaches nearer toTAHMu'RAS,
than to that of any other Ajfyrian monarch. Thus may we look on
Iran as the nobleft IJland, (for fo the Greeks and the Arabs would have
called it), or at leafi; as the nobleft peninfula, on this habitable globe;
and if M. Bailly had fixed on it as the Atlantis of Plato, he
might have fupported his opinion with far ftronger arguments than any,
that he has adduced in favour of New Zembla: if the account, indeed,
of the Atlantes be not purely an Egyptian, or an Utopia?!, fable, I
fliould be more inclined to place them in Iran than in any region, with
which I am acquainted.
It may feem ftrange, that the ancient hiftory of fo diftinguiflied an
Empire fhould be yet fo imperfeJlly known ; but very fatisfadlory
reafons
ON THE PERSIANS. 75
reafons may be affigned for our Ignorance of it : the principal of
them are the fuperficial knowledge of the Greeks and Jews, and the
lofs of Perjian archives or hiftorical compolitions. That the Gre-
ctan writers, before Xenophon, had no acquaintance with Perjia, and
that all their accounts of it are wholly fabulous, is a paradox too extra-
vagant to be ferioully maintained ; but their connexion with it in war
or peace had, indeed, been generally confined to bordering kingdoms
under feudatory princes ; and the firft Perfian Emperor, whofe life
and character they feem to have known with tolerable accuracy, was
the great Cyrus, whom I call, without fear of contradidlion, Caik-
HOSRAU ; for I fhall then only doubt that the Khosrau of Firdausi'
was the Cyrus of the firft Greek hiftorian, and the Hero of the old eft
political and moral romance, when I doubt that Louis ^latorze and
Lewis the Fourteenth were one and the fame French King : it is utterly
incredible, that two different princes of Perjia fhould each have been
born in a foreign and hoftile territory ; fhould each have been doomed to
death in his infancy by his maternal grandfather in confequence of
portentous dreams, real or invented ; fhould each have been faved by
the remorfe of his deftined murderer, and fliould each, after a fimilar
education among herdfmen, as the fon of a herdfman, have found
means to revifit his paternal kingdom, and having delivered it, after a
long and triumphant war, from the tyrant, who had invaded it, fhould
have reftored it to the fummit of power and magnificence. Whether
fo romantick a ftory, which is the fubjedl of an Epick Poem, as
majeftick and entire as the Iliad, be hiftorically true, we may feel per-
haps an inclination to doubt ; but it cannot with reafon be denied, that
the outline of it related to a fingle Hero, whom the Afiaticks, con-
verfmg with the father of European hiftory, defcribed according to
their popular traditions by his true name, which the Greek alphabet
could not exprefs : nor will a difference of names affed: the queftion ;
fince the Greeks had little regard for truth, which they facrijiced will-
ingly
70 THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
ingly to the Graces of their language, and the nicety of their ears ; and,
if they could render foreign words melodious, they v/ere never folicit-
ous to make them exadl ; hence they probably formed Camsyses from
Ca'mbakhsh, or Granting dejiresy a title rather than a name, and
Xerxes from Shi'ru'yi, a Prince and warriour in the Shalmdrnali, or
from Shi'rsha'h, which might alfo have been a title; for the AJiatick
Princes have conftantly alTumed new titles or epithets at different
periods of their lives, or on different occafions ; a cuftom, which we
have feen prevalent in our own times both in Irhi and Hindiijidn, and
which has been a fource of great confufion even in the fcriptural
accounts of Babylonian occurrences : both Greeks and Jews have in fad;
accommodated Perfian names to their own articulation ; and both feem
to have difregarded the native literature of Iran, without which they
could at moft attain a general and imperfedl knowledge of the country.
As to the Perfians themfelves, who were contemporary with the Je^^s
and Greeks, they muft have been acquainted with the hiftory of their
own times, and with the traditional accounts of paft ages ; but for a
reafon, which will prefently appear, they chofe to confider Cayu'-
MERS as the founder of the empire ; and, in the numerous diftradions,
which followed the overthrow of Da'ra', efpecially in the great revo-
lution on the defeat of Yezdegird, their civil hiflories were loft, as
thofe of India have unhappily been, from the folicitude of the priefts,
the only depofitaries of their learning, to preferve their books of law
and religion at the expenfe of all others : hence it has happened, that
nothing remains of genuine Perjian hiftory before the dynafty of
Sa'sa'n, except a few ruftick traditions and fables, which furnillied
materials for the Shdhndmah, and which are ftill fuppofed to exift in
the Pahlavi language. The annals of the Pijhdddt, or Ajjyrian, race
muft be confidered as dark and fabulous ; and thofe of the Caydni
£miily, or the Medes and Perfians, as heroick and poetical ; though
the lunar eclipfes, faid to be mentioned by Ptolemy, fix the time
of
ON THE PERSIANS. 77
of GusHTASP, the prince, by whom Zera'tusht was prote<fled :
of the Parthian kings defcended from Arshac or Arsaces, we
know little more than the names ; but the Safdnis had fo long an
Intercourfe with the Emperors of Home and Byzantium., that the
period of their dominion may be called an hiftorical age. In attempt-
ing to afcertain the beginning of the AJfyrian empire, we are deluded,
as in a thoufand inftances, by names arbitrarily impofed : it had been
fettled by chronologers, that the firft monarchy eftabliflied in Perjia
was the A[jyrian; and Newton, finding fome of opinion, that it rofe
in the firft century after the Flood, but unable by his own calculations
to extend it farther back than feven hundred and ninety years before
Christ, rejected part of the old fyftem and adopted the reft of it;
concluding, that the Affyrian Monarchs began to reign about two hundred
years after Solomon, and that, in all preceding ages, the government
of Iran had been divided into feveral petty ftates and principalities. Of
this opinion I confefs myfelf to have been ; when, difregarding the
wild chronology of the Miifelmans and Gabrs, I had allowed the utmoft
natural duration to the reigns of eleven PiJJjdddi kings, without being
able to add more than a hundred years to Newton's computation. It
feemed, indeed, unaccountably ftrange, that, although Abraham had
found a regular monarchy in Egypt, although the kingdom of Yemen
had juft pretenfions to very high antiquity, although the Chinefe, in the
twelfth century before our era, had made approaches at leaft to the
prefent form of their extenfive dominion, and although we can hardly
fuppofe the firft Indian monarchs to have reigned lefs than three
thoufand years ago, yet Perfia, the moft delightful, the moft com-
padl, the moft defirable country of them all, fhould have remained
for fo many ages unfettled and difunited. A fortunate difcovery, for
which I was firft indebted to Mir Muhammed Husatn, one of the
moft intelligent Mufelmans in India, has at once difilpated the cloud,
and
78 THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
and caft a gleam of light on the primeval hiftory of Iran and of the
human race, of which I had long defpaired, and which could hardly
have dawned from any other quarter.
The rare and interefting tra6l on twelve different religions, entitled
the Dabijlan, and compofed by a Mohammedan traveller, a native of
Cajhniiry named Mohsan, but diftlngulihed by the ailumed furname
of Fa'ni', or Perijl.uible, begins with a wonderfully curious chapter on
the religion of Hu'sH AN G, which was long anterior to that of Zera'-
TUSHT, but had continued to be fecretly profeffed by many learned Per-
Jians even to the author's time ; and feveral of tlie moil eminent of
them, dllTentlng in many points from the Gabrs, and perfecuted by the
ruling powers of their country, had retired to India ; where they com-
piled a number of books, now extremely fcarce, which Mohsan had
perufed, and with the writers of which, or with many of them, he had
contradled an Intimate friendfhip : from them he learned, that a power-
ful monarchy had been eftabllflied for ages in Iran before the acceffion
of Cayu'mers, that It was called the Mahdbadian dynafly, for a rea-
fon which will foon be mentioned, and that many princes, of whom
feven or eight only are named In the Dabijlan, and among them Mah-
BUL, or Maha' Beli, had raifed their empire to the zenith of human
glory. If we can rely on this evidence, which tp me appears unex-
ceptionable, the Iranian monarchy mufl have been the oldeft In the
world ; but it will remain dubious, to which of the three flocks, Hindu,
Arabian, or Tartar, the firfl Kings of Iran belonged, or whether they
fprang from a fourth race diftind from any of the others ; and thefe
are queflions, which we fhall be able, I imagine, to anfwer preclfely,
when wc have carefully inquired into the languages and letters, religion
2,nd philofophy, and incidentally into the arts and/ciences, of the ancient
Perjians.
I. In
ON THE PERSIANS. 79
I, In the new and important remarks, which I am going to offer, on
the ancient languages and chambers of Iran, I am fenfible, that you
mufl give me credit for many affertions, which on this occafion it is
impoffible to prove j for I Ihould ill deferve your indulgent attention, it
I were to abufe it by repeating a dry lift of detached words, and pre-
fenting you with a vocabulary inftead of a differtation ; but, fince I
have no fyftem to maintain, and have not fuffered imagination to delude
my judgement ; fmce I have habituated myfelf to form opinions of men
and things from evidence, which is the only folid bafis of civil, as ex-
periment is of natural, knowledge ; and fmce I have maturely con-
fidered the queftions which I mean to difcufs ; you will not, I am per-
fuaded, fufpedl my teftimony, or think that I go too far, when I affure
you, that I will affert nothing pofitively, which I am not able fatif-
faftorily to demonftrate. When Muhammed was born, and Anu'shi-
rava'n, whom he calls the Juji King, fat on the throne of Pej-Jia,
two languages appear to have been generally prevalent in the great
empire of Ira?t ; that of the Court, thence named Der), which was
oiily a refined and elegant dialed: of the Pdrsi, fo called from the pro-
vince, of which Shirdz is now the capital, and that of the learned, in
which moft books were compofed, and which had the name of Fahlavl,
either from the heroes, who fpoke it in former times, or from Pahlu, a
tradl of land, which included, we are told, fome coniiderable cities of
Irak : the ruder dialeds of both were, and, I believe, ftill are, fpoken
by the rufticks in feveral provinces ; and in many of them, as Herat,
Zdbul, Sijlan and others, diftindl idioms were vernacular, as it hap-
pens in every kingdom of great extent. Befides the Fdrs\ and Pahlavi,
a very ancient and abftrufe tongue was known to the priefts and philo-
fophers, called the language of the Zend, becaufe a book on religious and
moral duties, which they held f^cred, and which bore that name, had
been written in it j while the Pdzend, or comment on that work, was
compoled in Pahlav\, as a more popular idiom ; but a learned follower
of
80 THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
of Zera'tusht, named Baiiman, who lately died at Calcutta, where
he had lived with me as a Perjian reader about three years, aflured me,
that the letters of his prophet's book were properly called Zend, and the
language, Avejla, as the words of the Veda's are Sanfcrit, and the
charadlers, Nagan ; or as the old Saga''sznA poems of Ifeland were ex-
prefTed in Runick letters : let us however, in compliance with cuftom,
give the name of Zend to the facred language of Perfia, until we can
find, as we fhall very foon, a fitter appellation for it. The Zend and
the old Pahlavi are almofl extind: in Iran ; for among fix or kvcn
thoufand Gabrs, who refide chiefly at Yezd, and in Cirman, there are very
few, who can read Pahlavi, and fcarce any, ^vho even boaft of know-
ing the Zend; while the Pars), which remains almofl: pure in the
Shdhndmah, has now become by the intermixture of numberlefs Arabick
words, and many imperceptible changes, a new language exquifitely
polifhed by a feries of fine writers in profe and verfe, and analogous
to the different idioms gradually formed in Europe after the fubver-
fion of the Roman empire : but with modern Perjian we have no con-
cern in our prefent inquiry, which I confine to the ages, that preceded
the Mohammedan conqueft. Having twice read the works of Firdausi'
with great attention, fince I applied myfelf to the fludy of old Indian
literature, I can affure you with confidence, that hundreds of Pdrsi
nouns are pure Sanfcrit, with no other change than fuch as may be
obferved in the numerous bhdjhas, or vernacular dialeds, of India ; that
very many Perjian imperatives are the roots of Sanfcrit verbs j and that
even the moods and tenfes of the Perjian verb fubftantive, which is the
model of all the reft, are deducible from the Sanfcrit by an eafy and
clear analogy : we may hence conclude, that the Pdrsi was derived, like
the various Indian dialedls, from the language of the Brdhtnans ; and I
muft add, that in the pure Perfian I find no trace of any Arabian tongue,
except what proceeded from the known intercourfe between the Per-
Jians and Arabs, efpecially in the time of Bahra'm, who was educated
in
ON THE PERSIANS. 81
in Arabia, and whofe Arabick verfes are ilill extant, together with his
heroick line in Deri, which many fuppofe to be the firft attempt at Perfuin
verfification in Arabian metre : but, without having recourfe to other
arguments, the compofttion of words, in which the genius of the Perjian
delights, and which that of the Arabick abhors, is a decifive proof, that
the Parsi fprang from an Indian, and not from an Arabian, ftock. Confi-
dering languages as mere inilruments of knowledge, and having ftrong
reafons to doubt the exiflence of genuine books in Zend or Pahlavt
(efpecially fince the well-informed author of the Dabijian affirms the
work of Zera'tusht to have been loft, and its place lupplied by a
recent compilation) I had no inducement, though I had an opportunity,
to learn what remains of thofe ancient languages ; but I often converfed
on them with my friend Bahman, and both of us were convinced
after full confideration, that the Zend bore a ftrong refemblance to
Sajifcrit, and the Pahlavt to Arabick. He had at my requell tranflated
into Pahlavl the fine infcription, exhibited in the Gulijian, on the
diadem of Cyrus ; and I had the patience to read the lifl of words
from the Pdzend in the appendix to the Farhangi Jehdngirt : this exa-
mination gave me perfedl conviftion, that the Pa/i/avt was a dialed: of
the Chaldaick ; and of this curious fadl I will exhibit a fliort proof. By
the nature of the Chaldean tongue mofl words ended in the firfl long
vowel like Jljemid, heaven ; and that very word, unaltered in a lingle
letter, we find in the Pdzend, together with lailid, night, meyd, water,
nird, fire, matrd, rain, and a multitude of others, all Arabick or Hebreiv
with a Chaldean termination : fo zamar, by a beautiful metaphor from
pruning trees, means in Hebrew to compofe verfes, and thence, by an ealy
tranfition, tofng them j and in Pahlavt we fee the verb zamruniten, to
fing, with its forms zamrunemi, \fng, iindzamrmid, he fang ; the verbal
terminations of the Perfian being added to the Chaldaick root. Now all
thofe words are integral parts of the language, not adventitious to it
like the Arabick nouns and verbals engrafted on modern Per/ian ; and
VOL. I. o this
82 THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
this diftin<5tion convinces me, that the dialed: of the Gabrs, which they
pretend to be that of Zera'tusht, and of which Bahman gave me a
variety of written fpecimens, is a late invention of their priefts, or fubfe-
quent at leaft to the Mufelman invalion ; for, although it may be poflible^
that a few of their facred books were preferved, as he ufed to aflert, in
flieets of lead or copper at the bottom of wells near Tezd, yet as the
conquerors had not only a fpiritual, but a political, intereft in perfecuting
a warlike, robuft, and indignant race of irreconcilable conquered fub-
jedts, a long time muft have elapfed, before the hidden fcriptures could
have been fafely brought to light, and few, who could perfeftly
underftand them, muft then have remained; but, as they continued
to profefs among themfelves the religion of their forefathers, it be-
came expedient for the Mubeds to fupply the loft or mutilated works
of their legiflator by new compofitioiis, partly from their imperfeft re-
colledlion, and partly from fuch moral and religious knowledge, as they
cleaned, moft probably, among the ChriJUans, with whom they had an
intercourfe. One rule we may fairly eftablilh in deciding the queftion,
whether the books of the modern Gabrs were anterior to the invafion of
the Arabs : when an Arabick noun occurs in them changed only by the
fpirit of the Chaldean idiom, as werta, for tverd, a rofe, daba, for dhahab,
gold, or deincin, for z.eman, time, we may allow it to have been ancient
Fahlavi ; but, when we meet with verbal nouns or infinitives, evidently
formed by the rules of Arabian grammar, we may be fure, that the
phrafes, in which they occur, are comparatively modern ; and not a
fingle pafliige, which Bahman produced from the books of his religion.,
v/ould abide this teft.
We come now to the language of the Zend; and here I muft impart
a difcovery, which I lately made, and from which we may draw the
moft interefting confequences. M. An que til, who had the merit of
undertaking a voyage to India, in his earlieft youth, with no other view
than
ON THE PERSIANS. 83
than to recover the writings of Zera'tusht, and who would have
acquired a brilliant reputation in France, if he had not fullied it by his
immoderate vanity and virulence of temper, which alienated the good
will even of his own countrymen, has exhibited in his work, entitled
Zenddvejia, two vocabularies in TLend and Pablavt, which he had found
in an approved collection of Rawdyat, or Traditional Pieces, in modern
Perjian : of his Pahlavi no more needs be faid, than that it flrongly
confirms my opinion concerning the Chaldaick origin of that language ;
but, when I perufed the Zend gloffary, I was inexpreffibly furprized to
find, that fix or feven words in ten were pure Sanfcrit, and even fome
of their inflexions formed by the rules of the Vydcaran ; as yuflomdcam,
the genitive plural oi yujlomad. Now M. Anquetil moft certainly,
and the Perfian compiler moft probably, had no knowledge of Sanfcrit ;
and could not, therefore, have invented a lift of Sanfcrit words : it is,
therefore, an authentick lift of Zend words, which had been preferved
in books or by tradition ; and it follows, that the language of the Zend
was at leaft a dialedl of the Sanfcrit, approaching perhaps as nearly to
it as the Prdcrit, or other popular idioms, which we know to liave
been fpoken in India two thoufand years ago. From all thefe fadls it
is a necefi^ary confequcnce, that the oldeft difcoverable languages of
Perfia were Chaldaick and Sanfcrit ; and that, when they had ceafed to
be vernacular, the Pahlavi and Zend were deduced from them refpec-
tively, and the Pars} either from the Zend, or immediately from the
diale(£l of the Brdhmans ; but all had perhaps a mixture of 7'artarian ;
for the heft lexicographers afiert, that numberlefs words in ancient Per-
Jian are taken from the language of the Cimtnerians, or the Tartars of
Kipchdk ; fo that the three families, whofe lineage we have examined in
former difcourfes, had left vifible traces of themfelves in Iran, long
before the Tartars and Arabs had ruflied from their deferts, and returned
to that very country, from which in all probability they originally pro-
ceeded, and which the Hindus had abandoned in an earlier age, with
pofitive
84 THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
pofitive commands from their legiflators to revifit it no more. I clofe
this head with obferving, that no fuppolition of a mere poUtical or com-
mercial intercourfe between the different nations will account for the
Sanfcrit and Chaldakk words, which we find in the old PerfiaJi tongues ,-
becaufe they are, in the firft place, too numerous to have been intro-
duced by fuch means, and, fecondly, are not the names of exotick
animals, commodities, or arts, but thofe of material elements, parts of
the body, natural objefts and relations, affedions of the mind, and
other ideas common to the whole race of man.
If a nation of Hindus, it may be urged, ever pofTeifed and governed
the country of Iran, we fliould find on the very ancient ruins of the
temple or palace, now called the throne of ]emshi'd, fome infcriptions
in Dcvandgart, or at leaft in the charafters on the flones at Elephanta,
where the fculpture is unqueflionably Indian, or in thofe on the Staff of
Fi'ru'z Sha'h, which exifi: in the heart oi India ; and fuch infcriptions
we probably fliould have found, if that edifice had not been erefted
after the migration of the Brdhmans from Iran, and the violent fchifm
in the Perfian religion, of which we fhall prefently fpeak ; for, although
the popular name of the building at IJlakhr, or Perfcpolis, be no certain
proof that it was raifed in the time of Jemshi'd, yet fuch a fad: might
eafily have been prefervcd by tradition, and we fhall foon have abundant
evidence, that the temple was pofteriour to the reign of the Hindu mo-
narchs : the cyprejj'es indeed, which are reprefented with the figures in
proceflion, might induce a reader of tiie Shdhndmah to believe, that the
fcLilptures related to the new faith introduced by Zera'tusht; but,
as a cyprefs is a beautiful ornament, and as many of the figures appear
inconfiftent with the reformed adoration of fire, we mull: have recourfe
to ftronger proofs, that the Takhti Jemshi'd was ereded after Cayu'-
MERs. The building has lately been vifited, and the charaders on it
examined, by Mr. Francklin ; from whom we learn, that Niebuhr
has
ON^THE PERSIAxNS. 80
has delineated them with great accuracy : but without fuch teftimony I
fliould have fufpe(fted the corredlnefs of the deUneation j becaufe the
Danijh traveller has exhibited two infcriptions in modern Perfmn, and
one of them from the fame place, which cannot have been exadlly
tranfcribed : they are very elegant verfes of Niza'mi' and Sadi' on the
injf ability of human greatnefs, but fo ill engraved or fo ill copied, that,
if I had not had them nearly by heart, I fliould not have been able to
read them; and M. Rousseau o^ Isfahan, who tranflated them with
fhameful inaccuracy, mufl have been deceived by the badnefs of the
copy; or he never would have created a new king Wakam, by form-
ing one word of Jem and the particle prefixed to it. AlTuming, how-
ever, that we may reafon as conclufively on the charadlers publilhed by
NiEBUHR, as we might on the monuments themfelves, were they now
before us, we may begin with obferving, as Char din had obferved on
the very fpot, that they bear no refemblance whatever to the letters
ufed by the Gabrs in their copies of the Vendidad : this I once urged, in
an amicable debate with Bahman, as a proof, that the Zend letters
were a modern invention ; but he feemed to hear me without furprize,
and infilled, that the letters, to which I alluded, and which he had
often feen, were monumental characters never ufed in books, and in-
tended either to conceal fome religious myfteries from the vulgar, or to
difplay the art of the fculptor, like the embellifhed Cufick and Ndgari
on feveral Arabian and Indian monuments. He wondered, that any man
could ferioully doubt the antiquity of the Pahlavt letters ; and in truth the
infcription behind the horfe oi Rujlam, which Niebuhr has alfo given
us, is apparently Pahlavi, and might with fome pains be decyphered :
that charafter was extremely rude, and feems to have been v/ritten, like
the Roman and the Arabick, in a variety of hands ; for I remember to
have examined a rare colledtion of old Perfian coins in the Mufeum of
the great Anatomift, William Hunter, and, though I believed the
legends to be Pahlavh and had no doubt, that they were coins of Par-
thian
S() THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
tfnan kings, yet I could not read the infcriptions without wafting more
time, than I had then at command, in comparing the letters and afcer-
taining the proportions, in which they feverally occurred. The grofs
Pablavl was improved by Zera'tusht or his difciples into an elegant
and pcrfpicuous charafter, in which the Zenddz-ejia was copied ; and
both were written from the right hand to the left like other Chaldaick
alphabets ; for they are nianifeftly both of Chaldean origin ; but the
Zend has the fingular advantage of expreffing all the long and fliort
vowels, by diftindl marks, in the body of each word, and all the words
are diftinguifhed by full points between them ; fo that, if modern Per-
fian were unmixed with Arabick, it might be written in Zend with the
greateft convenience, as any one may perceive by copying in that cha-
radler a few pages of the Shdhnatnah. As to the unknown infcriptions
in the palace of Jemshi'd, it may reafonably be doubted, whether they
contain a fyftem of letters, which any nation ever adopted : in five of
them the letters, which are feparated by points, may be reduced to
forty, at leaft I can diftinguifli no more effentially different ; and they
all feem to be regular variations and compofitions of a ftraight line and
an angular figure like the head of a javelin, or a leaf (to ufe the language
of botanifts) hearted mid lanced. Many of the Runkk letters appear to
have been formed of fimilar elements ; and it has been obferved, that
the writing at Perfepolis bears a ftrong refemblance to that, which
the Irijh call Ogham: the word Again in Sanfcrit means myfie-
rious knowledge; but I dare not affirm, that the two words had a
common origin, and only mean to fuggeft, that, if the charaders in
queftion be really alphabetical, they were probably fecret and facer-
dotal, or a mere cypher, perhaps, of which the priefts only had the
key. They might, I imagine, be decyphered, if the language were
certainly known ; but, in all the other infcriptions of the fame fort, the
charadlers are too complex, and the variations of them too numerous,
to admit an opinion, tliat they could be fymbols of articulate founds ;
for
ON THE PERSIANS. 87
for even the Kagnri fyilem, which has more diftincl letters than any-
known alphabet, confills only of forty-nine fimple charadlers, two of
which are mere fubftitutions, and four of little ufe in Sanfcrit or in any
other language ; while the more complicated figures, exhibited by
NiEBUHR, muft be as numerous at leaft as the Chinefe keys, which are
the ligns of ideas only, and fome of which refemble the old Perfian
letters at IJiakhr : the DaniJJo traveller was convinced from his own ob-
fervation, that they were written from the left hand, like all the cha-
radlers ufed by Hindu nations ; but I muft leave this dark fubjedt,
which I cannot illuminate, with a remark formerly made by myfelf,
that the fquare Chaldaick letters, a few of which are found on the Per-
fian ruins, appear to have been originally the fame with the Devandgart,
before the latter were enclofed, as we now fee them, in angular frames.
II. The primeval religion of Iran, if we rely on the authorities ad-
duced by MoHSANi Fa'ni', was that, which Newton calls the oldefl
(and it may juftly be called the noblefl:) of all religions ; " a firm be-
" lief, that One Supreme God made the world by his power, and con-
" tinually governed it by his providence ; a pious fear, love, and ador-
" ation of Him ; a due reverence for parents and aged perfons ; a
" fraternal affeftion for the whole human fpecies, and a compaffionate
" tendernefs even for the brute creation." A fyftem of devotion fo
pure and fublime could hardly among mortals be of long duration ; and
we learn from the Dabijidn, that the popular worfliip of the Irdniam
under Hu'shang was purely Sabian ; a word, of which I cannot offer
any certain etymology, but which has been deduced by grammarians
from Saba, a hoji, and, particularly the bojl of heaven, or the celeftial
bodies, in the adoration of which the Sabian ritual is believed to have
confifled : there is a defcription, in the learned work juft mentioned,
of the feveral Perfian temples dedicated to the Sun and Planets, of the
images adored in them, and of the magnificent proceffions to them on
prefcribed.
88 THE SIXTH DISCOURSl-:.
prelcribed fellivals, one of which is probably reprelented by Iculpture
in the ruined city of Jemshi'd ; but the planetary v/orfliip in Perf^a
feems onlv a part of a fir more complicated religion, which we now
find in thefe Indian provinces ; for Mohsan allures us, that, in the opi-
nion of the beft informed Perjians, who profelfed the faith of Hu'shang,
diftinguilhed from that of Zera'tusht, the firil monarch oi Iran and
of the whole earth was Maha'ba'd, a word apparently Sanfcrit, v/ho
divided the people into four orders, the religious, the military, the com-
mercial, and the fervile, to which he affigned names unqueflionably the
fame in their origin with thofe now applied to the four primary ckfles
of the Hindus. They added, that He received from the creator, and
promulgated among men, a /acred book in a heavenly language, to which
the Mufelman author gives the Arabick title of defdtir, or regulations,
but the original name of which he has not mentioned ; and that four-
teen Maha'ba'ds had appeared or would appear in human fliapes for
the government of this world : now when we know, that the Hindus
believe va fourteen Menu's, or celeftial perfonages with fimilar functions,
xhefrji of whom left a book oi regulations, or divifie ordinances, which
they hold equal to the Veda, and the language of which they believe
to be that of the Gods, we can hardly doubt, that the firfl: corruption
of the pureft and oldeft religion was the lyftem of Lidian Theology, in-
vented by the Brdhmans and prevalent in thefe territories, where the book
of Maha'ba'd or Menu is at this hour the flandard of all religious
and moral duties. The acceOion of Cayu'mers to the throne of Per-
fia, in the eighth or ninth century before Christ, feems to have been
accompanied by a confiderable revolution both in government and reli-
gion : he was moft probably of a different race from the Mahdbadians,
who preceded him, and began perhaps the new fyftem of national faith,
which Hu'shang, whofe name it bears, completed; but the reforma-
tion was partial; for, while they rejecfted the complex polytheifm of
their predeceflbrs, they retained the laws of Maha'ba'd, with a fuper-
flitious
ON THE PERSIANS. SQ
ftitious veneration for the fun, the planets, and fire; thus refembling
the Hhii/u fedls, called Saura's and Sdgm'ca's, the fecond of which is
very numerous at Banares, where many agnihotras are continually blaz-
ing, and where the Sdgmcas, when they enter on their facerdotal office,
kindle, with two pieces of the hard wood Semi, a fire which they keep
lighted through their lives for their nuptial ceremony, the performance
of folemn facrifices, the obfequies of departed anceftors, and their
own funeral pile. This remarkable rite was continued by Zera'-
TUSHT; who reformed the old religion by the addition of genii, or
angels, prefiding over months and days, of new ceremonies in the
veneration (hown to fire, of a new work, which he pretended to have
received from heaven, and, above all, by eftablilhing the adlual adora-
tion of One Supreme Being : he was born, according to Mohsan, in
the diftridl of Rai ; and it was He, not, as Ammianus aflerts, his pro-
tedlor GusHTASB, who travelled into Lidia, that he might receive in-
formation from the Brdhmans in theology and ethicks. It is barely
poffible, that Pythagoras knew him in the capital oi Irak ; but the
Grecian fage mufl then have been far advanced in years, and we have
no certain evidence of an intercourfe between the two philofophers.
The reformed religion of Perfia continued in force, till that country
was fubdued by the Miifelmans ; and, without ftudying the Zend, we have
ample information concerning it in the m.odern Pcrfian writings of
feveral, who profeifed it. Bahman always named Zera'tusht, with
reverence j but he was in truth a pure Theift, and ftrongly difclaimed
any adoration of the^r^ or other elements : he denied, that the doftrine
of two coeval principles, fupremely good and fupremely bad, formed
any part of his faith ; and he often repeated with emphafis the verfes of
FiRDAUsi on the proftration of Cyrus and his paternal grandfather be-
fore the blazing altar : " Think not, that they were adorers of fire ; for
" that element was only an exalted objeft, on the luftre of which they
" fixed their eyes ; they humbled themfelves a whole week before
VOL. I, P " God ;
go THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
*♦ God ; and, if thy underftanding be ever fo little exerted, thou muft
" acknowledge thy dependence on the being fupremely pure." In a
flory of Sadi, near the clofe of his beautiful Bujian, concerning the
idol of So'mana't'h, or Maha'de'va, he confounds the religion of
the Hindus with that of the Gabrs, calling the Brahmans not only
Moghs, (which might be juftihed by a paflage in the Mef)iaviJ but
even readers of the Zend and Pdzend : now, whether this confufion
proceeded from real or pretended ignorance, I cannot decide, but am as
firmly convinced, that the dodlrines of the Zend were diftindl from thofe
of the Veda, as I am that the religion of the Brahmans, with whom we
converfe every day, prevailed in Per/ia before the acceflion of Cayu'-
MERs, whom the PdrsYs, from refpedl to his memory, confider as the
firil of men, although they believe in an imiverfal deluge before his
reign.
With the religion of the old Perjians their philofophy (or as much as
we know of it) was intimately connedted ; for they were affiduous ob-
fervers of the luminaries, which they adored, and eftablilhed, accord-
ing to Mohsan, who confirms in fome degree the fragments of
Berosus, a number of artificial cycles with difiindl names, which
feem to indicate a knowledge of the period, in which the equinoxes ap-
pear to revolve : they are faid alfo to have known the moft wonderful
powers of nature, and thence to have acquired the fame of magicians
and enchanters ; but I will only detain you with a few remarks on that
metaphyfical theology, which has been profefled immemorially by a
numerous fedl of PerJiaJis and Hindus, was carried in part into Greece,
and prevails even now among the learned Miifelmans, who fometimes
avow it without referve. The modern philofophers of this perfuafion
are called Sitji's, either from the Greek word for a /age, or from the
woollen mantle, whicli they ufcd to wear in fome provinces of Perfia:
their fundamental tenets are, that nothing exifts abfolutely but God :
that
ON THE PERSIANS. pi
that the human ibul is an emanation from his eflence, and, though
divided for a time from its heavenly fource, will be finally re-united with
it ; that the higheft poffible happinefs will arife from its reunion, and
that the chief good of mankind, in this tranfitory world, confifts in as
perfecft an union with the Eternal Spirit as the incumbrances of a mortal
frame will allow ; that, for this purpofe, they fliould break all connexion
(or tadlluk, as they call it), with extrinlick objedls, and pafs through
life without attachments, as a fwimmer in the ocean flrikes freely with-
out the impediment of clothes ; that they fliould be flraight and free as
the cj'prefs, whofe fruit is hardly perceptible, and not fink under a load,
like fruit-trees attached to a trellis ; that, if mere earthly charms have
power to influence the foul, the idea of celeflial beauty mufl overwhelm
it in extatick delight ; that, for want of apt words to exprefs the divine
perfediions and the ardour of devotion, we mufl borrow fuch expreffions
as approach the nearefl to our ideas, and ipeak of Beauty and Love in a
tranfcendent and myflical fenfe ; that, like a reed torn from its native
bank, like ivax feparated from its delicious honey, the foul of man be-
wails its difunion with melancholy mufick, and flieds burning tears, like
the lighted taper, waiting pafTionately for the moment of its extinction,
as a difengagement from earthly trammels, and the means of returning
to its Only Beloved. Such in part (for I omit the minuter and more
fubtil metaphyficks of the Sujis, which are mentioned in the Dabijlan)
is the wild and enthufiaftick religion of the modern Perjian poets, efpe-
cially of the fweet Ha'fiz and the great Maulavt : fuch is the fyflem
of the Vt'ddnti philofophers and befl lyrick poets of India ; and, as it
was a fyftem of the higheft antiquity in both nations, it may be added
to the many other proofs of an immemorial afHnity between them.
III. On the ancient monuments of Perjian fculpture and architedture
we have already made fuch obfervations, as were fufficient for our pur-
pofe i nor will you be furprized at the diverfity between the figures at
Elcphajzta,
Q2 THE SIXTH DISCOURSE,
Elephanta, which are manifeftly Hindu, and thofe at Pcrfepolis, which
are merely Sabian, if you concur with me in believing, that the Takhti
"iemjhid was eredted after the time of Cayu'mers, when the Brahmans
had migrated from Iran, and when their intricate mythology had been
fuperfeded by the fimpler adoration of the planets and of fire.
IV. As to xhcfciences or arts of the old Ferfians, I have little to fay ;
and no complete evidence of them feems to exifl. Mohsan fpeaks
more than once of ancient verfes in the Pahlavt language ; and Bah-
MAN affured me, that fome fcanty remains of them had been preferved :
their mufick and painting, which Niza'mi celebrated, have irreco-
verably perifhed; and in regard to Ma'ni', the painter and impoflor,
whofe book of drawings called Artang, which he pretended to be
divine, is fuppofed to have been deftroyed by the Chinefe, in whofe
dominions he had fought refuge, the whole tale is too modern to throw
any light on the queflions before us concerning the origin of nations
and the inhabitants of the primitive world.
Thus has it been proved by clear evidence and plain reafoning, that
a powerful monarchy was eftablifhed in Iran long before the AJJyrian,
or FiJlxUdi, government ; that it was in truth a Hindu monarchy,
though, if any chufe to call it Cujian, Cafdean, or Scythian, we fliall
not enter into a debate on mere names; that it fubfifted many centuries,
and that its hiflory has been ingrafted on that of the Hindus, who
founded the monarchies of Ayodhya and Indraprejlha ; that the language
of the firft Perjian empire was the mother of the Sanfcrit, and confe-
quently of the Zend, and Parfj, as well as of Greek, Latin, and Gothick ;
that the language of the AJfyrians was the parent of Chaldaick and
Pahlavi, and that the primary Tartarian language alfo had been current
in the fame empire ; although, as the Tartars had no books or even
letters, we cannot with certainty trace their unpolillied and variable
idioms.
ON THE PERSIANS. 93
idioms. We difcover, therefore in Perfia, at the earliefl dawn of hif-
tory, the three dillinA races of men, whom we defcribed on former oc-
cafions as pofleffors of India, Arabia, Tartary ; and, whether they were
colledled in Iran from diftant regions, or diverged from it, as from a
common centre, we fhall eafily determine by the following confidera-
tions. Let us obferve in the firfl place the central pofition of Iran,
which is bounded by Arabia, by Tartary, and by India ; whilft Arabia
lies contiguous to Iran only, but is remote from Tartary, and divided
even from the flcirts oi India by a confiderable gulf; no country, there-
fore, but Perjia feems likely to have fent forth its colonies to all the
kingdoms of Afia : the Brahmans could never have migrated from India
to Iran, becaufe they are exprefsly forbidden by their oldeft exifting
laws to leave the region, which they inhabit at this day ; the Arabs
have not even a tradition of an emigration into Perjia before Moham-
med, nor had they indeed any inducement to quit their beautiful and
extenfive domains ; and, as to the Tartars, we have no trace in hiftory
of their departure from their plains and forefls, till the invafion of the
Medes, who, according to etymologifts, were the fons of Madai, and
even they w^ere condud:ed by princes of an AJfyrian family. The three
races, therefore, whom we have already mentioned, (and more than
three we have not yet found) migrated from Iran, as from their common
country ; and thus the Saxon chronicle, I prefume from good authority,
brings the firfl- inhabitants of Britain from Armenia ; while a late very
learned writer concludes, after all his laborious refearches, that the
Goths or Scythians came from Perjia ; and another contends with great
force, that both the IriJJo and old Britons proceeded feverally from
the borders of the Cafpian ; a coincidence of conclufions from different
media by perfons wholly unconnedled, which could fcarce have hap-
pened, if they were not grounded on folid principles. We may there-
fore hold this propolition firmly eftabliflied, that Iran, or Perjia in its
largeft Icnfc, was the true centre of population, of knowledge, of
languages.
()| THE SIXTH DISCOURSE.
lano-uao-es, and of arts; which, inftead of travelhng weftvvard only, as
it has been fancifully fuppofed, or eaftward, as might with equal reafon
have been aflerted, were expanded in all direcflions to all the regions of
the world, in which the Hindu race had fettled under various deno-
minations : but, whether Afia has not produced other races of men,
diftuKft from the Hindus, the Arabs, or the 'Tartars, or whether any
apparent diverfity may not have fprung from an intermixture of thofe
three in different proportions, muft be the fubjed: of a future inquiry.
There is another queftion of more immediate importance, which you,
gentlemen, only can decide : namely, " by what means we can preferve
" our Society from dying gradually away, as it has advanced gradually
" to its prefent (fliall I fay flourifliing or languifliing ?) flate." It has
fubfifted five years without any expenfe to the members of it, until the
firft volume of our Tranfadiions was publiflied ; and the price of that
large volume, if we compare the different values of money in Bengal
and in Etigland, is not more than equal to the annual contribution to-
wards the charges of the Royal Society by each of its fellows, who may
not have chofen to compound for it on his admiffion : this I mention,
not from an idea that any of us could objeft to the purchafe of one
copy at leaft, but from a willi to inculcate the neceffity of our common
exertions in promoting the fale of the work both here and in Lofidon.
In vain rtiall we meet, as a literary body, if our meetings fhall ceafe to
be fupplied with original differtations and memorials ; and in vain fhall
we coUedl the moil: interefting papers, if we cannot publilh them occa-
lionally without expofing the Superintendents of the Company's prefs,
who undertake to print them at their own hazard, to the danger of a
confiderable lofs : by united efforts the French have compiled their ffu-
pendous repofitories of univerlal knowledge; and by united efforts only
can we hope to rival them, or to diffufe over our own country and the
reft of Europe the lights attainable by our Afiatick Refearches.
THE
THE SEVENTH
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE,
DELIVERED 25 FEBRUARY, 1790.
BY
The president.
GENTLEMEN,
XJlLTHOUGH we are at this moment confiderably nearer to the
frontier of China than to the fartheft limit of the BritijJ.^ dominions in
Himltijidn, yet the firfl ftep, that we fliall take in the philofophical
journey, which I propofe for your entertainment at the prefent meeting,
will carry us to the utmoft verge of the habitable globe known to the
beft geographers of old Greece and Egypt ; beyond the boundary of
whofe knowledge we Ihall difcern from the heights of the northern
mountains an empire nearly equal in furface to a fquare of fifteen de-
grees j an empire, of which I do not mean to affign the precife limits,
but which we may confider, for the purpofe of this differtation, as em-
braced on two fides by Tartary and India, while the ocean feparates its
other fides from various Afiatick ides of great importance in the com-
mercial fyftem of Europe : annexed to that immenfe tradt of land is the
peninfula
()(3 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
peninfula of Career, which a vail oval bafon divides from N/fon or 'Japan,
a celebrated and imperial iiland, bearing in arts and in arms, in ad-
vantage of fituation but not in felicity of government, a pre-eminence
among eaftern kingdoms analogous to that of Britain among the nations
of the weft. So many climates are included in fo prodigious an area,
that, while the principal emporium of China lies nearly under the tro-
pick, its metropolis enjoys the temperature oi Samarkand ; fuch too is
the diverfity of foil in its fifteen provinces, that, while fome of them are
exquifitely fertile, richly cultivated, and extremely populous, others are
barren and rocky, dry and unfruitful, with plains as wild or mountains
as rugged as any in Scythia, and thofe either wholly deferted, or peopled
by favage hordes, who, if they be not ftill independent, have been very
lately fubdued by the perfidy, rather than the valour, of a monarch,
who has perpetuated his own breach of faith in a Ciwiefe poem, of
which I have feen a tranflation.
The word China, concerning which I fliall offer fome new remarks,
is well known to the people, whom we call the Cbinefe ; but they never
apply it (I fpeak of the learned among them) to themfelves or to their
country: themfelves, according to Father Visdelou, they defcribe as
t\\Q people of Ha^, or of fome other illuflrious family, by the memory of
whofe aftions they flatter their national pride ; and their country they
call Cbmi-cue, or the Central Kingdom, reprefenting it in their fymbo-
lical characters by a parallelogram exaftly biffe<fled : at other times they
diflinguifh it by the words Tien-hia, or What is under Heaven, meaning
all that is valuable on Earth. Since tliey never name themfelves with
moderation, they would have no right to complain, if they knew, that
European authors have ever fpoken of them in the extremes of applaufe
or of cenfure : by fome they have been extolled as the oldeil: and the
wifert, as the moft learned and moft ingenious, of nations ; whilft others
have derided their pretenfions to antiquity, condemned their government
as
ON THE CHINESE. 97
as abominable, and arraigned their manners as inhuman, without allowing
them an element of fcience, or a fingle art, for which they have not
been indebted to fome more ancient and more civilized race of men.
The truth perhaps lies, where we ufually find it, between the extremes;
but it is not my delign to accufe or to defend the Chinefe, to deprefs or
to aggrandize them : I fliall confine myfelf to the difcuflion of a queftion
conneded with my former difcourfes, and far lefs eafy to be folved than
any hitherto ftarted. " Whence came the Angular people, who long
" had governed China, before they were conquered by the Tartars ^i"
On this problem, the folution of which has no concern, indeed, with
our political or commercial interefts, but a very material connection, if
I miftake not, with interefts of a higher nature, four opinions have been
advanced, and all rather peremptorily aflerted, than fupported by argu-
ment and evidence. By a few writers it has been urged, that the Chi-
nefe are an original race, who have dwelled for ages, if not from eternity,
in the land, which they now pofTefs ; by others, and chiefly by the mif-
fionaries, it is infifted, that they fprang from the fame ftock with the
Hebrews and yirabs j a third afi^ertion is that of the Arabs themfelves
and of M. Pauw, who hold it indubitable, that they were originally
Tartars defcending in wild clans from the fteeps oi Imaus ; and a fourth,
at leaft as dogmatically pronounced as any of the preceding, is that of
the Brdhmens, who decide, without allowing any appeal from their de-
cifion, that the Chinas (for fo they are named in Sajifcrit) were Hindus
of the Cpatriya, or military, clafs, who, abandoning the privileges of
their tribe, rambled in different bodies to the north-eaft o£ Benga/; and,
forgetting by degrees the rites and religion of their anceftors, eftabliflied
feparate principalities, which were afterwards united in the plains and
valleys, which are now pofiefied by them. If any one of the three laft
opinions be juft, the firft of them muft neceffarily be reUnquifiied ; but
of thofe three, the firft cannot pofilbly be fuftained ; becaufe it refts
on no firmer ftipport than a foolifh remark, whether true or falfe, that
VOL. I. Q^ Sem
Q8 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
Sem in Chtncfe means life and procreation ; and becaufe a tea-plant is
not more different from a palm, than a Chinefe from an Arab: they are
men, indeed, as the tea and the palm are vegetables ; but human faga-
city could not, I believe, difcover any other trace of refemblance be-
tween them. One of the Arabs, indeed, an account of whofe voyage
to India and China has been tranflated by Ren Au dot, thought the
Chinefe not only handfomer (according to his ideas of beauty) than the
Hindus, but even more like his own countrymen in features, habili-
ments, carriages, manners and ceremonies ; and this may be true, without
proving an adlual refemblance between the Chinefe and Arabs, except
in drefs and complexion. The next opinion is more connefted with
that of the Brdhmens, than M. Pauw, probably, imagined j for though
he tells us exprefsly, that by Scythians he meant the Turks or Tartars ;
yet the dragon on the ftandard, and fome other peculiarities, from
which he would infer a clear affinity between the old Tartars and the
Chinefe, belonged indubitably to thofe Scythians, who are known to
have been Goths ; and the Goths had manifeftly a common lineage with
the Hindus, if his own argument, in the preface to his Refearches, on
the fimllarity of language, be, as all men agree that it is, irrefragable.
That the Chinefe were anciently of a Tartarian ftock, is a propofition,
which I cannot otherwife difprove for the prefent, than by infixing on
the total diffimilarity of the two races in manners and arts, particularly in
the fine arts of imagination, which the Tartars, by their own account,
never cultivated; but, if we fliow ftrong grounds for believing, that
the nrft Chinefe were adlually of an Indian race, it will follow that M.
Pauw and the Arabs are miilaken : it is to the difcuffion of this new
and, in my opinion, very interefting point, that I Ihall confine the
remainder of my difcourfe.
In the Sanfcrit Inftitutes of Civil and Religious Duties, revealed, as
the Hindus believe, by Menu, the fon of Brahma', we find the fol-
lowing
ON THE CHINESE. gp
lowing curious pafiage : " Many families of the military clafs, having
" gradually abandoned the ordinances of the Veda, and the company of
" Brdhmens, lived in a ftate of degradation ; as the people of Pundraca
" and Odra, thofe of Dravira and Cambdja, the Tavanas and Sacas,
" the Pdradas and Pablavas, the Chinas and fome other nations." A
full comment on this text would here be fuperfluous ; but, lince the
teftimony of the Indian author, who, though certainly not a divine per-
fonage, was as certainly a very ancient lawyer, moralift, and hiftorian,
is diredl and pofitive, difmterefted and unfufpedled, it would, I think,
decide the queflion before us, if we could be fure, that the word China
fignified a Chinefe, as all the Pandits, whom I have feparately con-
fulted, aflert with one voice : they allure me, that the Chinas of
Menu fettled in a fine country to the north-eaft of Gaiir, and to the
eaft of Cdmarhp and Nepal ; that they have long been, and ftill are,
famed as ingenious artificers ; and that they had themfelves (ttn old
Chinefe idols, which bore a manifeft relation to the primitive religion of
Lidia before Buddha's appearance in it. A well-informed Pandit
Ihowed me a Saiifcrit book, in Caflmnrian letters, which, he faid, was
revealed by Siva himfelf, and entitled SaBifangama : he read to me a
whole chapter of it on the heterodox opinions of the Chinas, who were
divided, fays the author, into near two hundred clans. I then laid
before him a map of Afia ; and, when I pointed to Cafmnir, his own
country, he inftantly placed his finger on the north-weflern provinces
of China, where the Chinas, he faid, firft efhablifhed themfelves ; but
he added, that Mahdchina, which was alfo mentioned in his book,
extended to the eaftern and fouthern oceans. I believe, neverthelefs,
that the Chinefe empire, as we now call it, was not formed when the
laws of Menu were colledled ; and for this belief, fo repugnant to the
general opinion, I am bound to offer my reafons. If the outline of
hiftory and chronology for the laft two thoufand years be correftly
traced, (and we muft be hardy fcepticks to doubt it) the poems of
Ca'lida's
100 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
Ca'lida's were compofed before the beginning of our era: now it is
clear, from internal and external evidence, that the Ramayan and
Mahdbharat were confiderably older than the produdlions of that poet ;
and it appears from the ftyle and metre of the Dherma Sdjlra revealed
by Menu, that it was reduced to writing long before the age of
Va'lmic or Vya'sa, the fecond of whom names it with applaufe :
we fhall not, therefore, be thought extravagant, if we place the com-
piler of thofe laws between a thoufand and fifteen hundred years be-
fore Christ j efpecially as Buddha, whofe age is pretty well afcer-
tained, is not mentioned in them ; but, in the twelfth century before
our era, the Chtnefe empire was at leaft in its cradle. This faft it is
neceffary to prove; and my firft witnefs is Confucius himfelf. I
know to what keen fatire I fhall expofe myfelf by citing that philofo-
pher, after the bitter farcafms of M. Pauw againft him and againft the
tranflators of his mutilated, but valuable, works ; yet I quote without
fcruple the book entitled Lim Tii, of which I poflefs the original with
a verbal tranflation, and which I know to be fufficiently authentick
for my prefent purpofe : in the fecond part of it Con-fu-tsu declares,
that " Although he, like other men, could relate, as mere lefibns of
" morality, the hiftories of the firft and fecond imperial houfes, yet,
"for want of evidence, he could give no certain account of them."
Now, if the Chinefe themfelves do not even pretend, that any hiflorical
monuments exifted, in the age of Confucius, preceding the rife of
their third dynafty about eleven hundred years before the Chrijiian
epoch, we may juftly conclude, that the reign of Vu'vam was in the
infancy of their empire, which hardly grew to maturity till fome ages
after that prince ; and it has been afferted by very learned Europeans,
that even of the third dynafty, which he has the fame of having raifed,
no unfufpecfted memorial can now be produced. It was not till the
eighth century before the birth of our Saviour, that a fmall kingdom
was eredied in the province of Shcn-si, the capital of which flood nearly
in
ON THE CHINESE. 101
in the thirty-fifth degree of northern latitude, and about five degrees to
the weft of Si-gan : both the country and its metropolis were called
CAin ; and the dominion of its princes was gradually extended to the
eaft and weft. A king of CMn, who makes a figure in the Shahndmah
among the allies of Afra'siya'b, was, I prefume, a fovereign of the
country juft mentioned} and the river of Chin, which the poet fre-
quently names as the limit of his eaftern geography, feems to have been
the Tellow River, which the Chinefe introduce at the beginning of their
fabulous annals : I fhould be tempted to expatiate on fo curious a fub-
jedl ; but the prefent occafion allows nothing fuperfluous, and permits
me only to add, that Mangukhdn died, in the middle of the thirteenth
century, before the city of Chin, which was afterwards taken by
KuBLAi, and that the poets of /r«« perpetually allude to the diftridls
around it which they celebrate, with Chegil and Khoten, for a number
of mulk-animals roving on their hills. The territory of Chin, fo called
by the old Hindus, by the Petfians, and by the Chinefe (while the
Greeks and Arabs were obliged by their defedtive articulation to mifcal
it Sin) gave its name to a race of emperors, whofe tyranny made their
memory fo unpopular, that the modern inhabitants of China hold the
word in abhorrence, and fpeak of themfelves as the people of a milder
and more virtuous dynafty ; but it is highly probable that the whole
nation defcended from the Chinas of Menu, and, mixing with the
Tartars, by whom the plains oi Honan and the more fouthern pro-
vinces were thinly inhabited, formed by degrees the race of men, whom
we now fee in poffeiTion of the nobleft empire in Afia.
In fupport of an opinion, which I offer as the refult of long and
anxious inquiries, I Ihould regularly proceed to examine the language
and letters, religion and philofophy, of the prefent Chinefe, and fub-
join fome remarks on their ancient monuments, on their fciences, and
on their arts both liberal and mechanical : but their fpoken language,
not
102 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
not having been preferved by the ufual fymbols of articulate founds,
mud have been for many ages in a continual flux j their letters, if we
may fo call them, are merely the fymbols of ideas ; their popular
religion was imported from India in an age comparatively modern ; and
their phi.hfopby feems yet in fo rude a ilate, as hardly to deferve the
appellation ; they have no ancient moiiuments, from which their origin
can be traced even by plaulible conjedlure ; their fciences are wholly
exotick ; and their mechanical arts have nothing in them charafteriftick
of a particular family ; nothing, which any fet of men, in a country fo
highly favoured by nature, might not have difcovered and improved.
They have indeed, both national mufick and national poetry, and both
of them beautifully pathetick ; but of painting, fculpture, or architec-
ture, as arts of imagination, they feem (like other Afiaticks) to have
no idea. Inftead, therefore, of enlarging feparately on each of thofe
heads, I fliall briefly inquire, how far the literature and religious
pradlices of China confirm or oppofe the propofition, which I have
advanced.
The declared and fixed opinion of M. de Guignes, on the fubjed
before us, is nearly connefted with that of the Brahmens : he main-
tains, that the Chinefe were emigrants from Egypt ; and the Egyptians^
or Ethiopians, (for they were clearly the fame people) had indubitably
a common origin with the old natives of India, as the affinity of their
languages, and of their inftitutions, both religious and political, fully
evinces ; but that China was peopled a few centuries before our era by
a colony from the banks of the Nile, though neither Perjians nor Arabs,
Tartars nor Hindus, ever heard of fuch an emigration, is a paradox,
which the bare authority even of fo learned a man cannot fupport ; and,
fince reafon grounded on fafls can alone decide fuch a quefl:ion, we have
a right to demand clearer evidence and fl:ronger arguments, than any
that he has adduced. The hieroglyphicks of Egypt bear, indeed, a
ftrong
ON THE CHINESE. 103
ftrong refemblance to the mythological fculptures and paintings of
India, but Teem wholly diffimikr to the fymbolical fyftem of the
Chinefe, which might cafily have been invented (as they aflert) by an
individual, and might very naturally have been contrived by the firfl
Chinas, or out-caft Hitzdus, who either never knew, or had forgotten,
the alphabetical characfters of their wifer anceftors. As to the table
and bufts of Isis, they feem to be given up as modern forgeries; but,
if they were indifputably genuine, they would be nothing to the pur-
pofe ; for the letters on the bull: appear to have been defigned as alpha-
betical ; and the fabricator of them (if they really were fabricated in
EuropeJ was uncommonly happy, fmce two or three of them are ex-
ad:ly the fame with thofe on a metal pillar yet flanding in the north of
India. In Egypt, if we can rely on the teftimony of the Greeks, who
ftudied no language but their own, there were two fets of alphabetical
charadlsrs ; the one popular, like the various letters ufed in our Indian
provinces ; and the other facerdotal, like the DJvandgar), efpecially that
form of it, which we fee in the Veda ; befides which they had two
forts oi facred fculpture ; the one fimple, like the figures of Buddha
and the three Ra'mas j and the other, allegorical, like the imao-es of
Gane'sa, or Divine Wifdotn, and Isa'ni', or hature, with all their
emblematical accompaniments; but the real character of the Chinefe
appears wholly diilinct from any Egyptian writing, either myfterious or
popular; and, as to the fancy of M. de Guignes, that the complicated
fymbols of China were at firft no more than Phenician monograms, let
us hope, that he has abandoned fo wild a conceit, which he flarted pro-
bably with no other view than to difplay his ingenuity and learning.
We have ocular proof, that the few radical charaders of the Chinefe
were originally (like our aftronomical and chymical fymbols) the pic-
tures or outlines of vifible objeds, or figurative figns for fimple ideas,
which they have multiplied by the moft ingenious combinations and
the
104 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
the liveliefl: metaphors ; but, as the fyftem is peculiar, I believe, to
themfelves and the Japanefe, it would be idly oftentatious to enlarge on
it at prelent ; and, for the reafons already intimated, it neither corro-
borates nor weakens the opinion, which I endeavour to fupport. Tlie
lame may as truly be faid of their fpoken language; for, independently
of its conftant fludluation during a feries of ages, it has the peculiarity
of excluding four or five founds, which other nations articulate, and
is clipped into monofyllables, even when the ideas expreffed by them,
and the written fymbols for thofe ideas, are very complex. This has
arifen, I fuppofe, from the fingular habits of the people ; for, though
their coinmon tongue be fo miifically accented as to form a kind of re-
citative, yet it wants thofe grammatical accents, without which all
human tongues would appear monofyllabick : thus Amita, with an ac-
cent on the firft fyllable, means, in the Sanfcrit language, immeafurable ;
and the natives of Bengal pronounce it Omito ; but, when the religion
of Buddha, the fon of Ma'ya', was carried hence into China, the
people of that country, unable to pronounce the name of their new
God, called him Foe, the fon of Mo- ye, and divided his epithet
Amita into three fyllables 0-mi-to, annexing to them certain ideas of
their own, and expreffing them in writing by three diflind: fymbols.
We may judge from this inflance, whether a comparifon of their fpoken
tongue with the dialedls of other nations can lead to any certain con-
clufion as to their origin ; yet the inflance, which I have given, fupplies
me with an argument from analogy, which I produce as conjedtural
only, but which appears more and more plaufible, the oftener I con-
fider it. The Buddha of the Hindus is unqueflionably the Foe of
China ; but the great progenitor of the Chinefe is alfo named by them
Fo-Hi, where the fecond monofyllable fignifies, it feems, a viSlim : now
the anceflor of that military tribe, whom the Hindus call the Chandra-
vanfa, or Children of the Moon, was, according to their Pur anas or
legends, Budha, or the genius of the planet Mercury, from whom, in
the
ON THE CHINESE. 105
the Jifth degree, defcended a prince named Druhya ; whom his father
Yaya'ti fent in exile to the eaft of Hindiijidn, with this impreca-
tion, " may thy progeny be ignorant of the Veda.'' The name of the
bani/hed prince could not be pronounced by the modern Chinefe ; and,
though I dare not conjedlure, that the lafl: fyllable of it has been
changed into YaOj I may neverthelefs obferve that Yao was the
//}& in defcent from Fo-hi, or at leafl the fifth mortal in the firft im-
perial dynafty ; that all Chinefe hiftory before him is confidered by Chi-
nefe themfelves as poetical or fabulous? that his father Ti-co, hke the
Indian king Yaya'ti, was the firft prince who married feveral women ;
and that Fo-hi, the head of their race, appeared, fay the Chinefe, in a
province of the weft, and held his court in the territory of Chin, where
the rovers, mentioned by the Indian legiflator, are fuppofed to have
fettled. Another circumftance in the parallel is very remarkable : ac-
cording to father De Premare, in his tracft on Chinefe mythology, the
mother of Fo-hi was the Daughter of Heaven, furnamed Flower-loving;
and, as the nymph was walking alone on the bank of a river with a
fimilar name, flie found herfelf on a fudden encircled by a rain-bow ;
foon after which ftie became pregnant, and at the end of twelve years
was delivered of a fon radiant as herfelf, who, among other titles, had
that of Su'i, or Star oftheYear. Now in the mythological fyftem of the
Hindus, the nymph Ro'hini', who prefides over the fourth lunar manfion,
was the favourite miftrefs of So'ma, or the Moon, among whofe numer-
ous epithets we find Cumiidanayaca, or Delighting in a fpecies of water-
flower, that bloflbms at night; and their offspring was Budha, regent
of a planet, and called alfo, from the names of his parents, Rauhine'ya
or Saumya : it is true, that the learned miffionary explains the word
Su'i by Jupiter ; but an exaft refemblance between two fuch fables
could not have been expecfled ; and it is fufficient for my purpofe, that
they feem to have a family likenefs. The God Budha, fay the Indians,
married Ila', whofe father was preferved in a miraculous ark from an
VOL. I. R univerfal
106 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
univerfal deluge : now, although I cannot infill: with confidence, that
the rain-bow in the Chinefe fable alludes to the Mofaick narrative of the
flood, nor build any folid argument on the divine perfonage Niu-va,
of whofe charadler, and even of whofe fex, the hlftorians of China
fpeak very doubtfully, I may, neverthelefs, affure you, after full in-
quiry and confideration, that the Chinefe, like the Hindus, believe this
earth to have been wholly covered with water, which, in works of
undifputed authenticity, they defcribe as f owing abundantly, then fub-
fiding, and Jeparating the higher from the lower age of mankind ; that the
divifion of time, from which their poetical hiftory begins, juft preceded
the appearance of Fo-hi on the mountains of Chin, but that the great
inundation in the reign of Yao was either confined to the lowlands of
his kingdom, if the whole account of it be not a fable, or, if it con-
tain any allufion to the flood of Noah, has been ignorantly mifplaced
by the Chinefe annalifts.
The importation of a new religion into China, in the firfl: century of our
era, muft lead us to fuppofe, that the former fyftem, whatever it was,
had been found inadequate to the purpofe of reftraining the great body
of the people from thofe offences againft confcience and virtue, which
the civil power could not reach j and it is hardly poflible that, without
fuch refliridlions, any government could long have fubfifl:ed with felicity;
for no government can long fubfifl; without equal juftice, and iufl:ice
cannot be adminifl:ered without the fandlions of religion. Of the reli-
gious opinions, entertained by Confucius and his followers, we may
glean a general notion from the fragments of their works tranflated by
Couplet : they profefled a firm belief in the fupreme God, and gave a
demonftration of his being and of his providence from the exquifite
beauty and perfeftion of the celefl:ial bodies, and the wonderful order
of nature in the whole fabrick of the vifible world. From this belief
they deduced a lyfl.em of Ethicks, which the philofopher fums up in
a few
ON THE CHINESE. IQJ
a few words at the clofe of the Liim-yu: "He," fays Confucius,
" who fhall be fully perfuaded, that the Lord of Heaven governs
" the univerfe, who fliall in all things chufe moderation, who fhall
" perfectly know his own fpecies, and fo ad; among them, that his life
" and manners may conform to his knowledge of God and man, may be
" truly faid to difcharge all the duties of a fage, and to be far exalted
" above the common herd of the human race." But fuch a religion
and fuch morality could never have been general ; and we find, that the
people of China had an ancient fyftem of ceremonies and fuperftitions,
which the government and the philofophers appear to have encouraged,
and which has an apparent affinity with fome parts of the oldeft Indian
worfliip : they believed in the agency of genii or tutelary fpirits, pre-
fiding over the ftars and the clouds, over lakes and rivers, mountains,
valleys, and woods, over certain regions and towns, over all the ele-
ments (of which, like the Hindus, they reckoned ^i;^^ and particularly
GWQxfire, the mofl brilliant of them : to thofe deities they offered viftims
on high places ; and the following palfage from the Shi-cin, or Book of
Odes, is very much in the flyle of the Brdhmans : " Even they, who per-
" form a facrifice with due reverence, cannot perfedly affure themfelves,
" that the divine fpirits accept their oblations ; and far lefs can they,
" who adore the Gods with languor and ofcitancy, clearly perceive their
" facred illapfes." Thefe are imperfedt traces indeed, but they are
traces, of an affinity between the religion of Menu and that of the
Chinas, whom he names among the apoftates from it: M. Le Gentil
obferved, he fays, a flirong refemblance between the funeral rites of the
Chitiefe and the Srdddha of the Hindus ; and M. Bailly, after a learned
invefligation, concludes, that " Even the puerile and abfurd flories of
" the Chinefe fabulifls contain a remnant of ancient Indian hiflory, with
" a faint fketch of the firfl Hindu ages." As the Bauddhas, indeed,
were Hindus, it may naturally be imagined, that they carried into China
many ceremonies pradifed in their own country; but the Bauddhas
pofitively
108 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
pofitively forbad the immolation of cattle ; yet we know, that various
animals, even bulls and men, were anciently facrificed by the Chinefe ;
befides which we difcover many fingular marks of relation between
them and the old Hindus : as in the remarkable' period oi four hundred
and thirty two thoiifand, and the cycle oi fixty, years ; in the predilec-
tion for the myftical number nine; in many fimilar falis and great
feftivals, efpecially at the folilices and equinoxes j in the jufl-men-
tioned obfequies confiiling of rice and fruits offered to the manes of
their anceftors ; in the dread of dying childlefs, left fuch offerings
fhould be intermitted ; and, perhaps, in their common abhorrence of
r^^objeds, which the Indians carried fo far, that Menu himfelf, where
he allows a Brahmen to trade, if he cannot otherwife fupport life,
abfolutely forbids " his trafficking in any fort of red cloths, whether
" linen or woollen, or made of woven bark." All the circumftances,
which have been mentioned under the two heads of literature and reli-
gion ^ feem colledively to prove (as far as fuch a queffion admits proof)
that the Chinefe and Hindus were originally the fame people, but having
been feparated near four thoufand years, have retained few ftrong fea-
tures of their ancient confanguinity, efpecially as the Hindus have
preferved thek old language and ritual, while the Chinefe very foon loft
both, and the Hindus have conftantly intermarried among themfelves,
while the Chinefe, by a mixture of Tartarian blood from the time of
their firft eftablifliment, have at length formed a race diftindl: in ap-
pearance both from Indians and Tartars.
A fimilar diverfity has arifen, I believe, from fimilar caufes, between
the people of China and fapan -, on the fecond of which nations we
have now, or foon fliall have, as corredl and as ample inftruiftion as can
poffibly be obtained without a perfed: acquaintance with the Chinefe
charadlers. K^mpfer has taken from M. Titsingh the honour of
being the firft, and he from K.'empfer that of being the only. Euro-
pean.
ON THE CHINESE. 10c>
peaut who, by a long relidence in Japan, and a familiar intercourfe
with the principal natives of it, has been able to colledt authentick ma-
terials for the natural and civil hillory of a country fccluded, as the Ro^
mans ufed to fay of our own ifland, from the reji of the world : the
works of thole illuflrious travellers will confirm and embellifh each
other J and, when M. Titsingh fliall have acquired a knowledge of
Chinefe, to which a part of his leifure in Java will be devoted, his
precious colledlion of books in that language, on the laws and revolu-
tions, the natural produdlions, the arts, manufadiures, and fciences of
Japan, will be in his hands an inexhauflible mine of new and important
information. Both he and his predeceflbr allert with confidence, and,
I doubt not, with truth, that the Japanefe would refent, as an infult
on their dignity, the bare fuggeflion of their defcent from the Chinefe,
whom they furpafs in feveral of the mechanical arts, and, what is of
greater confequence, in military fpirit ; but they do not, I underftand,
mean to deny, that they are a branch of the fame ancient flem with
the people of China ; and, were that fadl ever fo warmly contefled by
them, it might be proved by an invincible argument, if the preceding
part of this difcourfe, on the origin of the Chinefe, be thought to con-
tain juft reafoning. Jn the firft place, it feems inconceivable, that the
Japanefe, who never appear to have been conquerors or conquered, fliould
have adopted the whole fyftem of Chinefe literature with all its incon-
veniences and intricacies, if an immemorial connexion had not fubfilied
between the two nations, or, in other words, if the bold and ingenious
race, who peopled Japan in the middle of the thirteenth century before
Christ, and, about fix hundred years afterwards, eftablilhed their
monarchy, had not carried with them the letters and learning, which
they and the Chinefe had pofiefled in common ; but my principal argu-
ment is, that the Bindu or Egyptian idolatry has prevailed in Japan
from the earliefl: ages ; and among the idols worfliipped, according to
K^MPFER, in that country, before the innovations of Sa'cya or
Buddha,
1 10 THE SEVENTH DISCOURSE,
Buddha, whom the Japanefe alfo call Amida, we find many of tliofe,
which we fee every day in the temples of Bengal ; particularly the
goddefs with many arms, reprefenting the powers of Nature, in Egypt
named Is is and here Isa'ni' or Isi', whofe image, as it is exhibited by
the German traveller, all the Brdhmans, to whom I fliowed it, imme-
diately recognized with a mixture of pleafure and enthufiafm. It is
very true, that the Chinefc differ widely from the natives o^ Japan in
their vernacular dialedls, in external manners, and perhaps in the
flrength of their mental faculties ; but as wide a difference is obfervable
among all the nations of the Got hick family j and we might account even
for a greater diffimilarity, by confidering the number of ages, during
which the feveral fwarms have been feparated from the great Indian
liive, to which they primarily belonged. The modern Japanefe gave
K^MPFER the idea of polilhed Tartars ; and it is reafonable to believe,
that the people of Japan, who were originally Hindus of the martial clafs
and advanced farther eaflward than the Chinas, have, like them, in-
fenfibly changed their features and charad:ers by intermarriages with
various Tartarian tribes, whom they found loofeJy fcattered over their
ifles, or who afterwards fixed their abode in theni.
Having now fliown in five difcourfes, that the Arabs and Tartars
were originally diftind races, while the Hindus, Chincfe, and Japanefe
proceeded from another ancient flem, and that all the three flems may
be traced to Iran, as to a common centre, from which it is highly
probable, that they diverged in various diredlions about four thouiand
years ago, I may feem to have accompliflied my defign of invefligating
the origin of the Afiatick nations ; but the queftions, which I undertook
to difcufs, are not yet ripe for a flridl analytical argument ; and it will
firll be neceffary to examine with fcrupulous attention all the detached
or infulated races of men, who either inhabit the borders of India,
Arabia, Tartary, Perfa, and China, or are interfperfed in the mountainous
and ■
ON THE CHINESE. 1 1 1
and uncultivated parts of thofe extenfive regions. To this examination
I fliall, at our next annual meeting, allot an entire difcourfe ; and if,
after all our inquiries, no more than t/jree primitive races can be found,
it will be a fubfequent confideration, whether thofe three ftocks had
one common root, and, if they had, by what means that root was pre-
ferved amid the violent fhocks, which our whole globe appears evidently
to have fuflained.
THE EIGHTH
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSE,
DELIVERED 24 FEBRUARY, 1791.
The president.
GENTLEMEN,
W E have taken a general view, at our five laft annual meetings, of
as many celebrated nations, whom we have proved, as far as the fub-
jedt admits of proof, to have defcended from three primitive flocks,
which we call for the prefent Indian, Arabian^ I'artarian ; and we have
nearly travelled over all A/ia, if not with a perfedl coincidence of
fentiment, at leaft, with as much unanimity, as can be naturally ex-
pefted in a large body of men, each of whom muft aflert it as his right,
and confider it as his duty, to decide on all points for himfelf, and
never to decide on obfcure points without the befl evidence, that can
poffibly be adduced: our travels will this day be concluded, but our
hiftorical refearches would have been left incomplete, if we had pafled
without attention over the numerous races of borderers, who have
long been eftabliftied on the limits of Arabia, Perjia, India, China, and
VOL. I. s Tartary i
114 ON THE BORDERERS, MOUNTAINEERS,
Tartary; over the wild tribes refiding in the mountainous parts of thofe
extenfive regions ; and the more civilized inhabitants of the iflands
annexed by geographers to their Afiatick divifion of this globe.
Let us take our departure from Idiime near the gulf of Elanitis, and,
having encircled y^Jia, with fuch deviations from our courfe as the fubjedl
may require, let us return to the point, from which we began ; en-
deavouring, if we are able, to find a nation, who may clearly be fhown,
by jufl: reafoning from their language, religion, and manners, to be
-neither Indians, Arabs, nor Tartars, pure or mixed ; but always remem-
bering, that any fmall family detached in an early age from their parent
ftock, without letters, with few ideas beyond objedls of the firft necef-
fity, and confequently with few words, and fixing their abode on a
range of mountains, in an ifland, or even in a wide region before unin-
habited, might in four or five centuries people their new country, and
would necefiarily form a new language with no perceptible traces, per-
haps, of that fpoken by their anceftors. Kdotn or Idiimey and Erythra
or Phcenice, had originally, as many believe, a fimilar meaning, and
were derived from words denoting a red colour ; but, whatever be their
derivation, it feems indubitable, that a race of men were anciently
fettled in Idiime and in Median, whom the oldeft and beft Greek authors
call Erythreans ; who were very diftindt from the Arabs; and whom,
from the concurrence of many ftrong teflimonies, we may fafely refer
to the Indian Hem. M. D'Herbelot mentions a tradition (which he
treats, indeed, as a fable), that a colony of thofe /^z;;«^tf«j- had migrated
from the northern fliores of the Erythrean fea, and failed acrofs the
Mediterranean to Europe, at the time fixed by Chronologers for the
pafiage of Evander with his Arcadians into Italy, and that both
Greeks and Romans were the progeny of thofe emigrants. It is not on
vague and fufpeded traditions, that we muft build our belief of fuch
events i but Newton, who advanced nothing in fcience without
demonftration.
AND ISLANDERS OF ASIA. i 1 5
demonftration, and nothing in hiftory without fuch evidence as he
thought conclufive, afferts from authorities, which he had carefully
examined, that the Idumean voyagers " carried with them both arts
" and fciences, among which were their aflronomy, navigation, and
*' letters ; for in Idume, fays he, they had letters, and names for conjlel-
*' Jations, before the days of Job, who mentions them." Job, indeed, or
the author of the book, which takes its name from him, was of the
Arabian ftock, as the language of that fublime work inconteflably
proves ; but the invention and propagation of letters and aflronomy are
by all fo juilly afcribed to the Indian family, that, if Strabo and
Herodotus were not grofsly deceived, the adventurous Idumeans, who
firft gave names to the ftars, and hazarded long voyages in fhips of their
own conftrudtion, could be no other than a branch of the Hindu race :
in all events, there is no ground for believing them of a fourth diftindt
lineage ; and we need fay no more of them, till we meet them again,
■on our return, under the name of Phenicians.
As we pafs down the formidable fea, which rolls over its coral bed
between the coaft of the Arabs, or thofe, who fpeak the pure language
of Ismail, and that of the Ajams, or thofe, who mutter it barbaroufy,
we find no certain traces, on the Arabian fide, of any people, who were
not originally Arabs of the genuine or mixed breed : anciently, perhaps,
there were Troglodytes in part of the peninfula, but they feem to have
been long fupplanted by the Nomades, or wandering herdfmen ; and who
thofe Troglodytes were, we fliall fee very clearly, if we deviate a few
moments from our intended path, and make a fhort excurfion into coun-
tries very lately explored on the Weftern, or African, fide of the Red Sea.
That the written Abyfjinian language, which we call Ethiopick, is a
dialeft of old Chaldean, and a fifter of Arabick and Hebrew, we know
with certainty, not only from the great multitude of identical words,
but
1 1 5 ox THE BORDERERS, MOUNTAINEERS,
but (which is a far flronger proof) from the limilar grammatical arrange-
ment of the feveral idioms : we know at the fame time, that it is
written, like all the Indian characters, from the left hand to the right,
and that the vowels are annexed, as in Devandgan, to the confonants ;
with which they form a fyllabick fyftem extremely clear and conve-^
nient, but difpofed in a lefs artificial order than the fyftem of letters
now exhibited in the Sanjcrit grammars ; whence it may juftly be in-
ferred, that the order contrived by Pa'nini or his difciples is compara-
tively modern ; and I have no doubt, from a curfory examination of
many old infcriptions on pillars and in caves, which have obligingly
been fent to me from all parts of India, that the Ndgari and Ethiopian
letters had at firfl: a fimilar form. It has long been my opinion, that the
Abyjjinians of the Arabian flock, having no fymbols of their own to
reprefent articulate founds, borrowed thofe of the black pagans, whom
the Greeks call Troglodytes, from their primeval habitations in natural
caverns, or in mountains excavated by their own labour : they were
probably the firft inhabitants of Africa, where they became in time
the builders of magnificent cities, the founders of feminaries for the
advancement of fcience and philofophy, and the inventors (if they were
not rather the importers) of fymbolical charaders. I believe on the
whole, that the Ethiops of Meroe were the fame people with the firft
Egyptians, and confequently, as it might eafily be fliown, with the
original Hindus. To the ardent and intrepid Mr. Bruce, whofe travels
are to my tafle uniformly agreeable and fatisfadtory, though he thinks
very differently from me on the language and genius of the Arabs, we
are indebted for more important, and, I believe, more accurate, infor-
mation concerning the nations eftablifhed near the Nik from its foun-
tains to its mouths, than all Europe united could before have fupplied ;
but, fince he has not been at the pains to compare the (tvtn languages,
of which he has exhibited a fpecimen, and lince I have not leifure to
make the comparifon, I muft be fatisfied with obferving, on his
authority,
AND ISLANDERS OF ASIA. 1 1 7
authority, that the dialedls of the Gafots and the Gallas, the Agoivs of
both races, and the Falapas, who muft originally have ufed a Chaldean
idiom, were never preferved in writing, and the Amharick only in
modern times : they muft, therefore, have been for ages in fludluation,
and can lead, perhaps, to no certain conclufion as to the origin of the
feveral tribes, who anciently fpoke them. It is very remarkable, as Mr.
Bruce and Mr. Bryant have proved, that the Greeks gave the appel-
lation of Indians both to the fouthern nations of Africk and to the peo-
ple, among whom we now live j nor is it lefs obfervable, that, accord-
ing to Ephorus quoted by Strabo, they called all the fouthern
nations in the world Ethiopians, thus ufing Indian and Ethiop as con-
vertible terms : but we muft leave the gymnofophifts of Ethiopia, who
feem to have profefled the doctrines of Buddha, and enter the great
Indian ocean, of which their Afiatick and African brethren were pro-
bably the firft navigators.
On the iflands near Temen we have little to remark : they appear
now to be peopled chiefly by Mohammedans, and afford no marks of dif-
crimination, with which I am acquainted, either in language or manners;
but I cannot bid farewel to the coaft of Arabia, without aflliring you,
that, whatever may be faid of Ommdn, and the Scythian colonies, who,
it is imagined, were formerly fettled there, I have met with no trace in
the maritime part of Temen, from Aden to Majkat, of any nation, who
were not either Arabs or AbyJJinian invaders.
Between that country and Iran are fome iflands, which, from their
infignificance in our prefent inquiry, may here be negledted j and, as to
the Curds, or other independent races, who inhabit the branches of
Taurus or the banks of Euphrates and Tigris, they have, I believe, no
written language, nor any certain memorials of their origin : it has,
indeed, been aflTerted by travellers, that a race of wanderers in Diydrbecr
yet
lis ON THE BORDERERS, MOUNTAINEERS,
yet fpeak the Chaldaick of our fcripture ; and the rambling Turcmdns
have retained, I imagine, fome traces of their Tartarian idioms ; but,
fince no veftige appears, from the gulf of PerJJa to the rivers Ciir and
ylras, of any people diftindl from the Arabs, Perfians, or Tartars, we
may conclude, that no fuch people exifts in the Iranian mountains,
and return to thofe, which feparate Iran from India. The principal
inhabitants of the mountains, called Pdrjici, where they run towards the
weft, Parveti, from a known Sanfcrit word, where they turn in an
eaftern dire<5tion, and Paropamjfns, where they join Imaus in the north,
were anciently diftinguifhed among the Brahmans by the name of De-
radas, but feem to have been deftroyed or expelled by the numerous
tribes of Afghans or Patans, among whom are the Ba/ojas, who give
their name to a mountainous diftricft ; and there is very folid ground for
believing, that the Afghans defcended from the 'Je'ws; becaufe they
fometimes in confidence avow that unpopular origin, which in general
they feduloufly conceal, and which other Mufelmans pofitively aflert ;
becaufe Hazaret, which appears to be the Afareth of Esdras, is one
of their territories ; and, principally, becaufe their language is evidently
a dialedt of the fcriptural Chaldaick.
We come now to the river Sindhu and the country named from it :
near its mouths we find a diftrid, called by Nearchus, in his journal,
Sangada; which M. D'Anville juftly fuppofes to be the feat of the
Sanganians, a barbarous and piratical nation mentioned by modern tra-
vellers, and well known at prefent by our countrymen in the weft of
India. Mr. Malet, now refident at Puna on the part of the Brittjlo
government, procured at my requeft the Sanganian letters, which are a
fort of Ndgar), and a fpecimen of their language, which is apparently
derived, like other Indian dialers, from the Sanfcrit; nor can I doubt,
from the defcriptions, which I have received, of their perfons and man-
ners, that they are Pdmeras, as the Brahmans call them, or outcaft
HinduSf
AND ISLANDERS OF ASIA. lig
Hijidus, immemorially feparated from the reft of the nation. It feems
agreed, that the fingular people, called Egyptians, and, by corruption,
Gypjies, paffed the Mediterranean immediately from Egypt; and their
motley language, of which Mr. Grellmann exhibits a copious voca-
bulary, contains fo many Sanfcrit words, that their Indian origin can
hardly be doubted : the authenticity of that vocabulary feems eftablillied
by a multitude of Gypfy words, as angar, charcoal, cdpith, wood, pdr^
a bank, bbu, earth, and a hundred more, for which the colleftor of
them could find no parallel in the vulgar diale<^ of Hindujldn, though
we know them to be pure Sanfcrit fcarce changed in a fingle letter. A
very i.igenious friend, to whom this remarkable h&. was imparted, fug-
gefted to me, that thofe very words might have been taken from old
Egyptian, and that the Gyp/ies were I'roglodytes from the rocks near
'Thebes, where a race of banditti ftill refemble them in their habits and
features ; but, as we have no other evidence of fo ftrong an affinity be-
tween the popular dialeds of old Egypt and India^ it feems more proba-
ble, that the Gypfies, whom the Italians call Zingaros, and Zinganos, were
no other than Zinganians, as M. D'Anville alfo writes the word,
who might, in fome piratical expedition, have landed on the coaft of
Arabia or Africa, whence tliey might have rambled to Egypt, and at
length have migrated, or been driven into Europe. To the kind-
nefs of Mr. Malet I am alfo indebted for an account of the Boras ; a
remarkable race of men inhabiting chiefly the cities of Gujarat, who,
though Mz^/e-Zw^Kj- in religion, are Jews in features, genius, and manners:
they form in all places a diftin£t fraternity, and are every where noted
for addrefs in bargaining, for minute thrift, and conftant attention to
lucre, but profefs total ignorance of their own origin ; though it feems
probable, that they came firft with their brethren the Afghans to the
borders of India, where they learned in time to prefer a gainful and fe-
cure occupation in populous towns to perpetual wars and laborious
exertions on the mountains. As to the Moplas, in the wellern parts of
the
120 ON THE BORDERERS, MOUNTAINEERS,
the Indian empire, I have feen their books in Arabick, and am per-
fuaded, that, hke the people called Malays, they defcended fi-om Ara-
bian traders and mariners after the age of Mu hammed.
On the continent of hzdia, between the river Vipafa, or Hyphafts, to
the weft, the mountains of Tripiira and Camarupa to the eaft, and
Himalaya to the north, we find many races ot wild people with more or
lefs of that priftine ferocity, which induced their anceflors to fecede
from the civilized inhabitants of the plains and valleys : in the moft
ancient Sanfcrit books they are called Sacas, Cirdtas, Colas, Pulindas,
Barbaras, and are all known to Europeans, though not all by their true
names ; but many Hindu pilgrims, who have travelled through their
haunts, have fully defcribed them to me j and I have found reafons for
believing, that they fprang from the old Indian ftem, though fome of them
were foon intermixed with the firft ramblers from Tartary, whofe lan-
guage feems to have been the bafis of that now fpoken by the Moguls.
■We come back to the Indian iflands, and haften to thofe, which lie to
tlie fouth-eaft of Sildn, or Taprobane ; for Sildn itfelf, as we know from
the languages, letters, religion, and old monuments of its various inha-
bitants, was peopkd beyond time of memory by the Hindu race, and for-
merly, perhaps, extended much farther to the weft and to the fouth, fo
as to include Lancd, or the equinodial point of the Indian aftronomers ;
nor can we reafonably doubt, that the fame enterprifing family planted
colonies in the other ifles of the fame ocean from the MaJayadwipaSy
which take their name from the mountain of Malaya, to the Moluccas,
or MalUcds, and probably far beyond them. Captain Forrest aftured
me, that he found the ifle of Bali (a great name in the hiftorical poems
of India) chiefly peopled by Hindus, who worfliipped the fame idols,
which he had feen in this province -, and that of Madhura muft have
been fo denominated, like the well known territory in the weftern penin-
fula.
AND ISLANDERS OF ASIA. 121
Tula, by a nation, who underflood Sanfcrit. We need not be furprized,
that M. D'Anville was unable to affign a reafon, why the "Jabadiosy
or Tavadwipa, of Ptolemy was rendered in the old Latin verfion the
i^coi Barley ; but we mufl admire the inquifitive fpirit and patient
labour of the Greeks and Romans, whom nothing obfervable feems to
have efcaped : Tava means barley in Sanfcrit j and» though that word,
or its regular derivative, be now applied folely to 'Java, yet the great
French geographer adduces very ftrong reafons for believing, that the
ancients applied it to Sumatra. In whatever way the name of the laft
mentioned ifland may be written by Europeans, it is clearly an Indian
word, implying abundance or excellence ; but we cannot help wondering,
that neither the natives of it, nor the befl informed of our PanditSt
know it by any fuch appellation ; efpecially as it ftill exhibits vifible
traces of a primeval connexion with India : from the very accurate and
interefting account of it by a learned and ingenious member of our
own body, we difcover, without any recourfe to etymological conjec-
ture, that multitudes of pure Sanfcrit words occur in the principal
dialecfts of the Sumatrans ; that, among their laws, two pofitive rules
concerning fureties and interefi appear to be taken word for word from
the Indian leglflators Na'red and Ha'ri'ta; and, what is yet more
obfervable, that the fyflem of letters, ufed by the people of Rejang
and Lampun, has the fame artificial order with the Devanagarl ; but in
every feries one letter is omitted, becaufe it is never found in the lan-
guages of thofe iflanders. If Mr. Marsden has proved (as he firmly
believes, and as we, from our knowledge of his accuracy, may fairly
prefume) that clear veftiges of one ancient language are difcernible in
all the infular dialefts of the fouthern feas from Madagafcar to the
Philippines and even to the remoteft iflands lately difcovered, we may
infer from the fpecimens in his account of Sumatra, that the parent
of them all was no other than the Satifcrit ; and with this obfervation,
having nothing of coniequence to add on the Chineje ifles or on thofe
VOL. I. T of
122 ON TH'E BORDERERS, MOUNTAINEERS,
o^ 'Japan, I leave the fartheft eaftern verge of this continent, and turn
to the countries, now under the government of China, between the
northern limits of India, and the extenfive domain of thofe Tartars, who
are flill independent.
That the people of Potyid or Tibet were Hindus, who engrafted the
herelies of Buddha on their old mythological religion, we know from
the refearches of Cassiano, who long had refided among themj and
whofe difquifitions on their language and letters, their tenets and forms
of worfliip, are inferted by Giorgi in his curious but prolix compila-
tion, which I have had the patience to read from the firft to the laft of
nine hundred rugged pages : their charadlers are apparently Indian, but
their language has now the difadvantage of being written with more
letters than are ever pronounced ; for, although it was anciently Sanfcrit
and polyfyllabick, it feems at prefent, from the influence of Chinefe
manners, to coniift of monofyllables, to form which, with fome regard
to grammatical derivation, it has become neceflary to fupprefs in com-
mon difcourfe many letters, which we fee in their books ; and thus we
are enabled to trace in their writing a number of Safifcrit words and
phrafes, which in their fpoken dialedl are quite undiftinguifliable. The
two engravings in Giorgi's book, from fketches by a Tibetian painter,
exhibit a fyftem of Egyptian and Indian mythology ; and a complete
explanation of them would have done the learned author more credit
than his fanciful etymologies, which are always ridiculous, and often
grofsly erroneous.
The Tartars having been wholly unlettered, as they freely confefs,
before their converfion to the religion oi Arabia, we cannot but fufpedl,
that the natives of Eighur, Tanciit, and Khata, who had fyftems of
letters and are even faid to have cultivated liberal arts, were not of the
Tartarian, but of the Indian, family ; and I apply the fame remark to
the
AND ISLANDERS OF ASIA. 123
the nation, whom we call Bannas, but who are known to the Pandits
by the name of Brahmachinas, and feem to have been the Bracbmani
of Ptolemy: they were probably rambling Hindus, who, defcending
from the northern parts of the eaftern peninfula, carried with them the
letters now ufed in A'va, which are no more than a round Ndgari
derived from the fquare charadlers, in which the Pali, or facred
language of Buddha's priefts in that country, was anciently written ^
a language, by the way, very nearly allied to the Sanfcrit, if we can de-
pend on the teftimony of M. De la Loubere ^ who, though always
an acute obferver, and in general a faithful reporter, of fafts, is charged
by Car PAN I us with having miftaken the Barma for the P^7/ letters j
and when, on his authority, I fpoke of the Bali writing to a young chief
oi Aracan, who read with facility the books of the Bar7nas, he correcfled
me with politenefs, and afllired me, that the Pali language was written
by the priefts in a much older charadter.
Let us now return eaftward to the fartheft Afiatick dominions of
Ru/Jia, and, rounding them on the northeaft, pafs direftly to the Hyper-
boreans ; who, from all that can be learned of their old religion and
manners, appear like the MaJJdgetce, and fome other nations ufually
confidered as Tartars, to have been really of the Gothick, that is of the
Hindu, race ; for I confidently alTume, that the Goths and the Hindus had
originally the fime language, gave the fame appellations to the ftars
and planets, adored the fame falfe deities, performed the fame bloody
facrifices, and profefTed the fame notions of rewards and punifhments
after death. I would not infift with M. Bail ly, that the people of
Finland were Gotbs, merely becaufe they have the word fnp in their
language ; while the reft of it appears w^hoUy diftindl from any of the
Gothick idioms : the publiflaers of the Lord's Prayer in many languages
reprefent the Fiiuiijh and Lapponian as nearly alike, and the Hungarian
as
124 ON THE BORDERERS, MOUNTAINEERS,
as totally different from them ; but this muft be an errour, if it be true,
that a RuJJiaJi author has lately traced the Hungarian from its primitive
feat between the Cafpian and the Kiixtne, as far as Lapland itfelf ; and,
fmce the Hiins were confeffedly Tartars, we may conclude, that all the
northern languages, except the Gothick, had a Tartarian origin, like
that univerfally afcribed to the various branches of Sclavojtian.
On the Armenian, which I never iludied, becaufe T could not hear of
any original compofitions in it, I can offer nothing decifive ; but am
convinced, from the heft information procurable in Bengal, that its
bafis was ancient Perjian of the fame Indian ftock with the Zend, and
that it has been gradually changed lince the time, when Armenia ceafed
to be a province of Iran: the letters, in which it now appears, are allowed
to be comparatively modern -, and, though the learned editor of the
tradl by Carpanius on the literature oi Ava, compares them with the
Pali charadlers, yet, if they be not, as I fhould rather imagine, de-
rived from the Pahlavi, they are probably an invention of fome learned
Armenian in the middle of the fifth century. Moses of Khoren, than
whom no man was more able to elucidate the fubjedt, has inferted in
his hiftorical work a difquiiition on the language of Armenia, from
which we might colledl fome curious information, if the prefent occa-
lion required it j but to all the races of men, who inhabit the branches
of Caucafus and the northern limits of Iran, I apply the remark,
before announced generally, that ferocious and hardy tribes, who retire
for the fake of liberty to mountainous regions, and form by degrees a
feparate nation, muft alfo form in the end a feparate language by
agreeing on new words to exprefs new ideas ; provided that the lan-
guage, which they carried with them, was not fixed by writing and
fufficiently copious. The Armenian damfels are faid by Strabo to
have facrificed in the temple of the goddefs Anaitis, whom we know,
from
AND ISLANDERS OF ASIA. 125
from other authorities, to be the Na'hi'd, or Venus, of the old Pcr-
Jians ; and it is for many reafons highly probable, that one and the fame
religion prevailed through the whole empire of Cyrus.
Having travelled round the continent, and among the iflands, oi Afia,
we come again to the coaft of the Mediterranean ; and the principal
nations of antiquity, who firft demand our attention, are the Greeks and
Phrygians, who, though differing fomewhat in manners, and perhaps in
dialed:, had an apparent affinity in religion as well as in language : the
Dorian, Ionian, and Eolian families having emigrated from Europe, to
which it is univerfally agreed that they firft palfed from Egypt, I can
add nothing to what has been advanced concerning them in former dif-
courfes j and, no written monuments of old Phrygia being extant, I fliall
only obferve, on the authority of the Greeks, that the grand objedt of
myfterious worfhip in that country was the Mother of the Gods, or
Nature perfonified, as we fee her among the Indians in a thoufand
forms and under a thoufand names. She was called in the Phrygian
dialed Ma , and reprefented in a car drawn by lions, with a drum in
her hand, and a towered coronet on her head : her myfteries (which
feem to be alluded to in the Mofaick law) are folemnized at the
autumnal equinox in thefe provinces, where flie is named, in one of her
charadters. Ma', is adored, in all of them, as the great Mother, is
figured fitting on a lion, and appears in fome of her temples with a dia-
dem or mitre of turrets : a drum is called dindima both in Sanfcrit
and Phrygian ; and the title of Dindymenc feems rather derived from
that word, than from the name of a mountain. The Diana of
Ephefus was manifeftly the fame goddefs in the charadler of produdlive
Nature; and the Astarte of the Syrians and Phenicians (to whom we
now return) was, I doubt not, the fame in another form : I may on the
whole afTure you, that the learned works of Selden and Jablonski,
on the Gods of Syria and Egypt, would receive more illuftration from
the
120 ON THE BORDERERS, MOUNTAINEERS,
the little B'^nfcrh book, entitled Cbinidzy than from all the fragments of
oriental mythology, that are difperfed in the whole compafs of Grecian,
Roman, and Hebrew literature. We are told, that the Phenic'ians, like
the Hindus, adored the Sun, and afTerted water to be the firft of created
things ; nor can we doubt, that Syria, Samaria, and Phejiice, or the long
ftrip of land on the fhore of the Mediterranean, were anciently peopled
by a branch of the Indian ilock, but were afterwards inhabited by that
race, which for the prefent we call Arabian : in all three the oldeft
religion was the jJJJyrian, as it is called by Selden, and the Samaritan
letters appear to have been the fame at iirft with thofe of Phenice ; but
the Syriack language, of which ample remains are preferved, and the
Punick, of which we have a clear fpecimen in Plautus and on monu-
ments lately brought to light, were indifputably of a Chaldaick, or
^rabick, origin.
The feat of the firft Phenicians having extended to Idiime, with which
we began, we have now completed the circuit of AJia ; but we muft not
pafs over in filence a mofk extraordinary people, who efcaped the atten-
tion, as Barrow obferves more than once, of the diligent and inquifi-
tive Herodotus : I mean the people oi Judea, whofe language demon-
ftrates their affinity with the Arabs, but whofe manners, literature, and
hiflory are wonderfully diftinguiflied from the reft of mankind. Bar-
row loads them with the fevere, but juft, epithets of malignant, unfocial,
obftinate, diftruftful, fordid, changeable, turbulent ; and defcribes them
as furioufly zealous in fuccouring their own countrymen, but impla-
cably hoftile to other nations; yet, with all the fottifh perverfenefs, the
ftupid arrogance, and the brutal atrocity of their characfter, they had the
peculiar merit, among all races of men under heaven, of preferving a
rational and pure fyftem of devotion in the midft of wild polytheifm,
inhuman or obfcene rights, and a dark labyrinth of errours produced by
ignorance and fupported by interefted fraud. Theological inquiries ai-e
no
AND ISLANDERS OF ASIA. 127
no part of my prefent fubjedl ; but I cannot refrain from adding, that
the coUedlion of trails, which we call from their excellence the Scrip-
tures, contain, independently of a divine origin, more true fublimity,
more exquifite beauty, purer morality, more important hiftory, and
finer ftrains both of poetry and eloquence, than could be colledted
within the fame compafs from all other books, that were ever com-
pofed in any age or in any idiom. The two parts, of which the Scrip-
tures confift, are connedled by a chain of compofitions, which bear no
refemblance in form or ftyle to any that can be produced from the
(lores oi Grecian, Indian, Perjian, or even Arabian, learning : the antiquity
of thofe compofitions no man doubts ; and the unflrained application of
them to events long fubfequent to their publication is a folid ground of
belief, that they were genuine pr,edid:ions, and confequently infpired;
but, if any thing be the abfolute exclufive property of each individual,
it is his belief; and, I hope, I {hould be one of the laft men living,
Avho could harbour a thought of obtruding my own belief on the free
minds of others, I mean only to afTume, what, I trufl, will be readily
conceded, that the firft Hebrew hiftorian muft be entitled, merely as
fuch, to an equal degree of credit, in his account of all civil tranf-
adlions, with any other hiflorian of antiquity : how far that moft
ancient writer confirms the refult of our inquiries into the genealogy of
nations, I propofe to (how at our next anniverfary meeting ; when, after
an approach to demonftration, in the ftridl method of the old analyfis, I
{hall refume the whole argument concifely and fynthetically ; and fliall
then have condenfed in feven difcourfes a mafs of evidence, which, if
brevity had not been my objedl, might have been expanded into (cvexi
large volumes with no other trouble than that of holding the pen; but
(to borrow a turn of exprefiion from one of our poets) " for what I
" have produced, I claim only your indulgence ; it is for what I have
" fuppreffed, that I am entitled to your thanks."
DISCOURSE THE NINTH.
ON
THE ORIGIN AND FAMILIES OF NATIONS.
DELIVERED 23 FEBRUARY, 1792.
BV
The president.
X OU have attended, gentlemen, with fo much indulgence to my dif-
courfes on the five AJiatick nations, and on the various tribes eflablifhed
along their feveral borders or interfperfed over their mountains, that
I cannot but flatter myfelf with an afTurance of being heard with equal
attention, while I trace to one centre the three great families, from
which thofe nations appear to have proceeded, and then hazard a few
conjedlures on the different courfes, which they may be fuppofed to
have taken toward the countries, in which we find them fettled at the
dawn of all geniune hiftory.
Let us begin with a fliort review of the propofitions, to which we
have gradually been led, and feparate fuch as are morally certain, from
fuch as are only probable : that the firft race of Perjians and IndianSy to
whom we may add the Romans and Greeks, the Gcths^ and the old
VOL. I. u Egyptians
130 ON THE ORIGIN
Egyptians or Ethiops, originally fpoke the fame language and profefTed
the fame popular faith, is capable, in my humble opinion, of incontef-
table proof; that the Jevos and Arabs, the Ajfyrians, or fecond Perfian
race, the people who fpoke Syraick, and a numerous tribe of AbyJJi7iians,
ufed one primitive dialedt wholly diftindl from the idiom juft mentioned,
is, I believe, undifputed, and, I am fure, indifputable ; but that the fet-
tlers in China and "Japan had a common origin with the Hindus, is no
more than highly probable ; and, that all the Tartars, as they are inac-
curately called, were primarily of a third feparate branch, totally differ-
ing from the two others in language, manners, and features, may indeed
be plaufibly conjedlured, but cannot, for the reafons aliedged in a for-
mer eflay, be perfpicuoufly fliown, and for the prefent therefore mufl
be merely affiimed. Could thefe fails be verified by the beft attainable
evidence, it would not, I prefume, be doubted, that the whole earth was
peopled by a variety of {hoots from the Indian, Arabian, and Tartarian
branches, or by fuch intermixtures of them, as, in a courfe of ages,
might naturally have happened.
Now I admit without hefitation the aphorifm of Linn^us, that
'* in the beginning God created one pair only of every living fpecies,
" which has a diverfity of fex;" but, fince that incomparable naturalift
argues principally from the wonderful diffufion of vegetables, and from
an hypothefis, that the water on this globe has been continually
fubfiding, I venture to produce a fhorter and clofer argument in fupport
of his doctrine. That Nature, of which fimplicity appears a diftin-
guifliing attribute, does nothing in vain, is a maxim in philofophy j and
againft thofe, who deny maxims, we cannot difpute ; but // is vain and
fuperfluous to do by many means what may be done by fe-iver, and this is
another axiom received into courts of judicature from the fchools of
philofophers : we miijl not, therefore, fays our great Newton, admit
more caiifes of natural things, than thofe, which are true, and fujiciently
account
AND FAMILIES GF NATIONS. 131
account for tiatural phenomena ; but it is true, that one pair at leaji of
every living fpecies muft at firfl have been created ; and that one human
pair was fufficient for the population of our globe in a period of no
confiderable length (on the very moderate fuppofition of lawyers and
political arithmeticians, that every pair of ancellors left on an average
two children, and each of them two more), is evident from the rapid
increafe of numbers in geometrical progreffion, fo well known to thofe,
who have ever taken the trouble to fum a feries of as many terms, as they
fuppofe generations of men in two or three thoufand years. It follows,
that the Author of Nature (for all nature proclaims its divine author)
created but one pair of our fpecies ; yet, had it not been (among other
reafons) for the devaftations, which hiflory has recorded, of water and
fire, wars, famine, and pellilence, this earth would not now have had
room for its multiplied inhabitants. If the human race then be, as
we may confidently afllime, of one natural fpecies, they muft all have
proceeded from one pair; and if perfed: juftice be, as it is moft indu-
bitably, an eflential attribute of GOD, that pair muft have been gifted
with fufficient wifdom and ftrength to be virtuous, and, as far as their
nature admitted, happy, but intrufted with freedom of will to be vicious
and confequently degraded : whatever might be their option, they muft
people in time the region where they firft were eftabliflied, and their
numerous defcendants muft neceftarily feek new countries, as inclination
might prompt, or accident lead, them ; they would of courfe migrate in
feparate families and clans, which, forgetting by degrees the language
of their common progenitor, would form new dialeds to convey new
ideas, both fimple and complex j natural affedion would unite them
at firft, and a fenfe of reciprocal utility, the great and only cement
of fecial union in the abfence of publick honour and juftice, for
which in evil times it is a general fubftitute, would combine them
at length in communities more or lefs regular ; laws would be propofed
by a part of each community, but enaded by the whole ; and govern-
ments
132 ON THE ORIGIN
ments would be varioufly arranged for the happinels or mifery of the
governed, according to their own virtue and wifdom, or depravity and
folly ; fo that, in lefs than three thoufand years, the world would ex-
hibit the fame appearances, which we may adually obferve on it in the
age of the great Arabian impoftor.
On that part of it, to which our united refearches are generally con-
fined, we ittjive races of men peculiarly diftinguifhed, in the time of
MuHAMMED, for their multitude and extent of dominion ; but we have
reduced them to three, becaufe we can difcover no more, that efTentially
differ in language, religion, manners, and other known charadlerifticks :
now thofe three races, how varioufly foever they may at prefent be dif-
perfed and intermixed, muft (if the preceding conclufions be juftly
drawn) have migrated originally from a central country, to find which
is the problem propofed for folution. Suppofe it folved ; and give any
arbitrary name to that centre : let it, if you pleafe, be Iran. The three
primitive languages, therefore, muft at firft have been concentrated in
in Iran, and there only in fadl we fee traces of them in the earlieft
hiftorical age ; but, for the fake of greater precifion, conceive the whole
empire oi Iran, with all its mountains and vallies, plains and rivers, to
be every way infinitely diminiflied ; the firft winding courfes, therefore,
of all the nations proceeding from it by land, and nearly at the fame
time, will be little right lines, but without interfediions, becaufe thofe
courfes could not have thwarted and crofted one another : if then you
confider the feats of all the migrating nations as points in a furrounding
figure, you will perceive, that the feveral rays, diverging from Iran,
may be drawn to them without any interfecflion ; but this will not hap-
pen, if you aftume as a centre Arabia, or Egypt; India, Tartary, or
China: it follows, that Iran, or Perfia (I contend for the meaning, not
th^ name), was the central country, which we fought. This mode of
reafoning I have adopted, not from any affedation (as you will do me
the
AND FAMILIES OF NATIONS. 133
the juftice to believe) of a fcientinck didlion, bat for the fake of con-
cifenefs and variety, and from a wifh to avoid repetitions ; the fubflance
of my argument having been detailed in a different form at the clofe of
another difcourfe ; nor does the argument in any form rife to demon-
flration, which the queftion by no means admits : it amounts, however,
to fuch a proof, grounded on written evidence and credible teflimony,
as all mankind hold fufficient for decifions affedling property, freedom,
and life.
Thus then have we proved, that the inhabitants of ^Jia, and confc-
quently, as it might be proved, of the whole earth, fprang from three
branches of one flem : and that thofe branches have fhot into their pre-
fent ftate of luxuriance in a period comparatively fhort, is apparent
from a fa6t univerfally acknowledged, that we find no certain monu-
ment, or even probable tradition, of nations planted, empires and flates
raifed, laws ena<fted, cities built, navigation improved, commerce en-
couraged, arts invented, or letters contrived, above twelve or at moft
fifteen or fixteen centuries before the birth of Christ, and from
another faft, which cannot be controverted, that feven hundred or a
thoufand years would have been fully adequate to the fuppofed propa-
gation, diffufion, and eftablifliment of the human race.
The mofl ancient hiftory of that race, and the oldefl compofition
perhaps in the world, is a work in Hebrew, which we may fuppofe at
firft, for the fake of our argument, to have no higher authority than
any other work of equal antiquity, that the refearches of the curious
had accidentally brought to light: it is afcribed to Musah ; for fo he
writes his own name, which, after the Greeh and Romans, we have
changed into Moses ; and, though it was manifeftly his objed: to give
an hiftorical account of a fingle family, he has introduced it with a
fhort
134 ON THE ORIGIN
fhort view of the primitive world, and his introdudlion has been divided,
perhaps improperly, into eleven chapters. After defcribing with awful
fublimity the creation of this univerfe, he afferts, that one pair of every
animal fpecies was called from nothing into exiftence ; that the human
pair were ftrong enough to be happy, but free to be miferable ; that, from
delufion and temerity, they difobeyed their fupreme benefadlor, whofe
goodnefs could not pardon them confiftently with his juftice ; and that
they received a punifliment adequate to their difobedience, but foftened
by a myflerious promife to be accompliflied in their defcendants. We
cannot but believe, on the fuppofition juft made of a hiftory un-
infpired, that thefe fadts were delivered by tradition from the firft pair,
and related by Moses in a figurative ftyle ; not in that fort of allegory,
which rhetoricians defcribe as a mere affemblage of metaphors, but in
the fymbolical mode of writing adopted by eaftern fages, to embellifli
and dignify hiftorical truth ; and, if this were a time for fuch illuftra-
tions, we might produce the fame account of the creation and th.t fall,
cxpreffed by fymbols very nearly fimilar, from the Purdnas themfelves,
and even from the Veda, which appears to ftand next in antiquity to the
five books of Moses.
The fketch of antediluvian hiftory, in which we find many dark
paffages, is followed by the narrative of a deluge, which deftroyed the
whole race of man, except four pairs ; an hiftorical fadl admitted as true
by every nation, to whofe literature we have accefs, and particularly by
the ancient Hindus, who have allotted an entire Piirdna to the detail of
that event, which they relate, as ufual, in fymbols or allegories. I
concur moft heartily with thofe, who infift, that, in proportion as any
fa£l mentioned in hiftory feems repugnant to the courfe of nature, or,
in one word, miraculous, the ftronger evidence is required to induce
a rational belief of it ; but we hear without incredulity, that cities
have
AND FAMILIES OF NATIONS. 135
have been overwhelmed by eruptions from burning mountains, territo-
ries laid wafte by hurricanes, and whole iflands depopulated by earth-
quakes : if then we look at the firmament fprinkled with innumerable
ilars J if we conclude by a fair analogy, that every flar is a fun, attra<fl-
ing, like ours, a fyilem of inhabited planets ; and if cur ardent fancy,
foaring hand in hand with found reafon, waft us beyond the vifible
fphere into regions of immenfity, difclofing other celeftial expanfes and
other fyftems of funs and worlds on all fides without number or end,
we cannot but confider the fubmerfion of our little fpheroid as an in-
finitely lefs event in refpeft of the immeafurable univerfe, than the de-
ftrudlion of a city or an ille in refpeft of this habitable globe. Let a
general flood, however, be fuppofed improbable in proportion to the
magnitude of fo ruinous an event, yet the concurrent evidences of it are
completely adequate to the fuppofed improbability ; but, as we cannot
here expatiate on thofe proofs, we proceed to the fourth important fad:
recorded in the Mofaick hiftory ; I mean the firft propagation and
early difperfion of mankind in feparate families to feparate places of
refidence.
Three fons of the juft and virtuous man, whofe lineage was preferved
from the general inundation, travelled, we are told, as they began to
multiply, in three large divifions varioufly fubdivided : the children of
Ya'fet feem, from the traces of Sklavonian names, and the mention of
their being enlarged, to have fpread themfelves far and wide, and to
have produced the race, which, for want of a corred: appellation, we
call Tartarian ; the colonies, formed by the fons of Ham and Shem,
appear to have been nearly fimultaneous; and, among thofe of the latter
branch, we find fo many nan;jps inconteftably preferved at this hour in
Arabia, that we cannot hefitate in pronouncing them the fame people,
whom hitherto we have denominated Arabs; while the former branch,
the moft powerful and adventurous of whom were the progeny of
CusH,
136 ON THE ORIGIN
CusH, MisR, and Rama (names remaining unchanged in Sanfcrit,
and highly revered by the Hindus), were, in all probability, the race,
which I call Indian, and to which we may now give any other name,
that may feem more proper and comprehenfive.
The general introdudion to the Jewip hillory doles with a very
concife and obfcure account of a prefumptuous and mad attempt, by a
particular colony, to build a fplendid city and raife a fabrick of im-
menfe height, independently of the divine aid, and, it ihould feem,
in defiance of the divine power; a projed:, which was baffled by
means appearing at firft view inadequate to the purpofe, but ending in
violent dilTention among the projedors, and in the ultimate feparation
of them : this event alfo feems to be recorded by the ancient Hindus in
two of their Purdnas ; and it will be proved, I trufl, on fome future
occafion, that t/ie lion burjiing from a pillar to dejlroy a blafpheming giant,
and the dwarf, who beguiled and held in derifion the magnificent Beli, are
one and the fame ftory related in a fymbolical flyle.
Now thefe primeval events are defcribed as having happened between
the Oxus and Euphrates, the mountains of Caucafus and the borders of
India, that is, within the limits of Iran ; for, though moft of the Mo-
faick names have been confiderably altered, yet numbers of them remain
unchanged : we ftill find Harrdn in Mefopotamia, and travellers appear
unanimous in fixing the fite of ancient Babel.
Thus, on the preceding fuppofition, that the firfl eleven chapters of
the book, which it is thought proper to call Genefis, are merely a pre-
face to the oldefl civil hiftory now extant, we fee the truth of them
confirmed by antecedent reafoning, and by evidence in part highly pro-
bable, and in part certain ; but the comicSlion of the Mofaick hiftory
with that of the Gofpel by a chain of fublime prediftions unqueftion-
ably
AND FAMILIES OF NATIONS. 137
ably ancient, and apparently fulfilled, mufl: induce us to think the
Hebrew narrative more than human in its origin, and confequently true
in every fubftantial part of it, though poflibly expreffed in figurative
language ; as many learned and pious men have believed, and as the moll
pious may believe without injury, and perhaps with advantage, to the
caufe of revealed religion. If Moses then was endued with fuper-
natural knowledge, it is no longer probable only, but abfolutely certain,
that the whole race of man proceeded from Iran, as from a centre,
whence they migrated at firfl; in three great colonies ; and that thofe
three branches grew from a common flock, which had been miracu-
loufly preferved in a general convulfion and inundation of this globe.
Having arrived by a different path at the fame conclufion with Mr.
Bryant as to one of thofe families, the mofl ingenious and enter-
prifing of the three, but arrogant, cruel, and idolatrous, which we both
conclude to be various fhoots from the Hamian or Amonian branch, I
fliall add but little to my former obfervations on his profound and
agreeable work, which I have thrice perufed with increafed attention
and pleafure, though not with perfedl acquiefcence in the other lefs
important parts of his plaufible fyflem. The fum of his argument feems
reducible to three heads, Firfl ; " if the deluge really happened at the
" time recorded by Moses, thofe nations, whofe monuments are pre-
" ferved or whofe writings are acceflible, muft have retained memorials
" of an event fo flupendous and comparatively fo recent ; but in fadt
** they have retained fuch memorials :" this reafoning feems jufl, and the
fa(5l is true beyond controverfy : Secondly; "thofe memorials were ex-
" preffed by the race of Ham, before the ufe of letters, in rude fculp-
" ture or painting, and moftly in fymbolical figures of the ark, the
" eight perfons concealed in it, and the birds, which firfl were difmifTed
" from it : this facfl is probable, but, I think, not fufficiently afcertained."
Thirdly ; " all ancient Mythology (except what was purely Sabian) had
VOL. I. X " its
138 ON THE ORIGIN
" its primary fource in thole various fymbols mifunderllood; lb that
" ancient Mythology ftands now in the place of fymbolical Iculpture or
" paintino-, and muit be explained on the fame principles, on which we
" flioiild begin to decypher the originals, if they now exifted :" this part
of the fyfcem is, in my opinion, carried too far j nor can I perfuade my-
felf ( togive one inftance out of many) that the beautiful allegory of Cupid
and Psyche, had the remotefl allufioii to the deluge, or that Hymen
fio-nified the veil, which covered the patriarch and his family. Thefe
proportions, however, are fupported with great ingenuity and folid
erudition, but, unprofitably for the argument, and unfortunately, per-
haps, for the fame of the work itfelf, recourfe is had to etymological
conjeiflure, than which no mode of reafoning is in general weaker or
more delulive. He, who profelfes to derive the words of any one lan-
guage from thofe of another, mull expofe himfelf to the danger of per-
petual errours, unlefs he be perfedlly acquainted with both ; yet my re-
fpedlable friend, though eminently fkilled in the idioms of Greece and
Rome, has no fort of acquaintance with any Afiatick dialed:, except
Hebreiso ; and he has confequently made miflakes, which every learner
of Arabick and Perfian mull inllantly deteft. Among ffty radical words
fma, taph, and ram being included), eighteen are purely of Arabian
origin, tiaelve merely Indian, and feventeen both Sanfcrit and Arabick,
but in fenfes totally different ; while two are Greek only, and one Egyp-
tian, or barbarous : if it be urged, that thofe radicals (which ought furely
to have concluded, inllead of preceding, an analytical inquiry) are pre-
cious traces of the primitive language, from which all others were
derived, or to which at leall they were fubfequent, I can only declare
my belief, that the language of Noah is loft irretrievably, and affure
you, 'that, after a diligent fearch, I cannot find a fingle word ufed
in common by the Arabian, Indian, and 'Tartar families, before the
intermixture of dialedts occafioned by Mohammedan conquells. There
are, indeed, very obvious traces of the Hamian language, and Ibme
hundreds
AND FAMILIES OF NATIONS. ISq
hundreds of words might be produced, which were formerly ufed pro-
mifcuoufly by mofl nations of that race ; but I beg leave, as a philo-
loger, to enter my proteft againft conjectural etymology in hiftorical
refearches, and principally againft the licentioufnefs of etymologifts in
tranfpofing and inferting letters, in fubftituting at pleafure any con-
fonant for another of the fame order, and in totally difregarding the
vowels : for fuch permutations few radical words would be more con-
venient than Cus or Cush, lince, dentals being changed for dentals, and
palatials for palatials, it inftantly becomes coot, goofe, and, by tranf-
pofition, duck, all water-birds, and evidently fymbolical ; it next is the
goat worfliipped in Egypt, and, by a metathefis, the dog adored as an
emblem of SiRius, or, more obvioully, a cat, not the domeftick ani-
mal, but a fort of fliip, and, the Catos, or great fea-fifh, of the Dorians.
It will hardly be imagined, that I mean by this irony to infult an author,
whom I refped; and efteem ; but no conlideration fhould induce me to
affift by my filence in the diftufion of errour ; and I contend, that
almoft any word or nation might be derived from any other, if fuch
licences, as I am oppoling, were permitted in etymological hiftories :
when we find, indeed, the fame words, letter for letter, and in a fenfe
precifely the fame, in different languages, we can fcarce hefitate in
allowing them a common origin ; and, not to depart from the example
before us, when we fee Cush or Cus (for the Sanfcrit name alfo is
varioufly pronounced) among the fons of Brahma', that is, among the
progenitors of the Hindus, and at the head of an ancient pedigree pre-
ferved in the Rdmdyan ; when we meet with his name again in the
family of Ra'ma; when we know, that the name is venerated in the
higheft degree, and given to a facred grafs, defcribed as a Poa by
KoENiG, which is ufed with a thoufand ceremonies in the oblations to
fire, ordained by Menu to form the facrificial zone of the Brdhmam,
and folemnly declared in the Veda to have fprung up foon after the
deluge, whence the Paurdnicks confider it as the brijily hair cf the boar
njohich
140 ON THE ORIGIN
which fupported the globe ; wlien we add, that one of the feven dwipas,
or great penlnfulas of this earth, lias the fame appellation, we can
hardly doubt, that the Cush of Moses and Va'lmic was the fame
perfonage and an anceflor of the Indian race.
From the teftimonies adduced in the fix laft annual difcourfes, and
from the additional proofs laid before you, or rather opened, on the
prefent occafion, it feems to follow, that the only human family after
the flood eftabliflied themfelves in the northern parts of Iran ; that, as
they multiplied, they were divided into three diftindl branches, each
retaining little at firft, and lofmg the whole by degrees, of their com-
mon primary language, but agreeing feverally on new expreffions
for new ideas ; that the branch of Ya'fet was enlarged in many fcat-
tered fhoots over the north of Europe and A/ia, difFufmg themfelves as
far as the weftern and eaflern feas, and, at length in the infancy of
navigation, beyond them both ; that they cultivated no liberal arts, and
had no ufe of letters, but formed a variety of dialecfls, as their tribes
were varioufly ramified j that, fecondly, the children of Ham, who
founded in Iran itfelf the monarchy of the firll Chaldeans, invented
letters, obferved and named the luminaries of the firmament, calculated
the ^nown Indian period of /o«r hundred and thirty-two thoufand years, or
an hundred and twenty repetitions of xh& faros, and contrived the old fyftem
of Mythology, partly allegorical, and partly grounded on idolatrous vene-
ration for their fages and lawgivers ; that they were difperfed at various
intervals and in various colonies over land and ocean j that the tribes of
MiSR, CusH, and Rama fettled in Africk and India; while fome of
them, having improved the art of failing, pafTed from Egypt, Phenice, and
Phrygia, into Italy and Greece, which they found thinly peopled by former
emigrants, of whom they fupplanted fome tribes, and united themfelves
with others ; whilft a fwarm from the fame hive moved by a northerly
courfe into Scandinavia, and another, by the head of the Ox«j,.and through
the
AND FAMILIES OF NATIONS. 141
the palTes of Imaus, into Cajhghar and Eighur, Khatd and Khoten, as far as
the territories of Chin and Tancut, where letters have been ufed and arts
immemorially cultivated ; nor is it unreafonable to believe, that fome
of them found their way from the eaftern illes into Mexico and PerUy
where traces were difcovered of rude literature and Mythology ana-
logous to thofe of Egypt and India ; that, thirdly, the old Chaldean em-
pire being overthrown by the AJJyrians under Cayu'mers, other miera-
tions took place, efpecially into India, while the reft of Shem's proo-em'-,
fome of whom had before fettled on the Red Sea, peopled the whole
Arabian peninfula, preffing clofe on the nations of Syria and Phenice ;
that, laftly, from all the three families were detached many bold adven-
turers of an ardent fpirit and a roving difpofition, who difdained fubordi-
nation and wandered in feparate clans, till they fettled in diftant ifles or
in deferts and mountainous regions ; that, on the whole, fome colonies
might have migrated before the death of their venerable progenitor,
but that ftates and empires could fcarce have afllimed a regular form,
till fifteen or fixteen hundred years before the Chrijiian epoch, and
that, for the firft thoufand years of that period, we have no hiflory
unmixed with fable, except that of the turbulent and variable, but
eminently diftinguifhed, nation defcended from Abraham.
My defign, gentlemen, of tracing the origin and progrefs of the five
principal nations, who have peopled Afia, and of whom there were
confiderable remains in their feveral countries at the time of Muham-
med's birth, is now accompliflied j fuccindlly, from the nature of thefe
efFays ; imperfeftly, from the darknefs of the fubjedl and fcantinefs of my
materials, but clearly and comprehenfively enough to form a bafis for
fubfequent refearches : you have feen, as diftind:ly as I am able to fhow,
ivho thofe nations originally were, whence and when they moved toward
their final ftations j and, in my future annual difcourfes, I propofe to
enlarge on the particular advantages to our country and to mankind,
which
142 ON THE ORIGIN, &c.
which may refult from our fedulous and united inquiries into the hiftory,
fcience, and arts, of thefe Afiatick regions, efpecially of the Britijh do-
minions in India, which we may confider as the centre (not of the
human race, but) of our common exertions to promote its true interefls;
and we fliall concur, I truft, in opinion, that the race of man, to advance
whofe manly happinefs is our duty and will of courfe be our endeavour,
cannot long be happy without virtue, nor adlively virtuous without
freedom, nor fccurelv free without rational knowledge.
THE
THE TENTH
ANNIVERSARY DISCOURSj
DELIVERED 28 FEBRUARY, 1793.
The president.
ON JSUTICK HISTORY, CIVIL AND NATURAL.
XjEFORE our entrance, gentlemen, into the difquifition, promifed
at the clofe of my ninth annual difcourfe, on the particular advantages,
which may be derived from our concurrent refearches in AJia, it feems
neceffary to fix with precilion the fenfe, in which we mean to fpeak of
advantage or utility : now, as we have defcribed the five Afiatick re-
gions on their largeft fcale, and have expanded our conceptions in pro-
portion to the magnitude of that wide field, we iliould ufe thofe words,
which comprehend the fruit of all our inquiries, in their moft extenfive
acceptation ; including not only the folid conveniences and comforts of
focial life, but its elegances and innocent pleafures, and even the grati-
fication of a natural and laudable curiohty; for, though labour be clearly
the lot of man in this world, yet, in the midfl: of his moft adlive exer-
tions, he cannot but feel the fubftantial benefit of every liberal amufe-
ment.
144 ON ASIATICK HISTORY,
merit, which may lull his paffions to reft, and afford him a fort of re-
pofe without the pain of total inadion, and the real ufefulnefs of every
purfuit, which may enlarge and diverfify his ideas, without interfering
with the principal objefts of his civil ftation or economical duties ; nor
fhould we wholly exclude even the trivial and worldly fenfe of utility,
which too many confider as merely fynonymous with lucre, but fliould
reckon among ufeful objedls thofe pradical, and by no means illiberal,
arts, which may eventually conduce both to national and to private emo-
lument. With a view then to advantages thus explained, let us examine
every point in the whole circle of arts and fciences, according to the
received order of their dependence on the faculties of the mind, their
mutual connexion, and the different fubjecfls, with which they are con-
verfant : our inquiries indeed, of which Nature and Man are the primary
objefls, muft of courfe be chiefly HiJIor/cal ; but, fince we propofe to
inveftigate the aSliotis of the feveral Afiatick nations, together with their
refpeiflive progrefs mfcience and art, we may arrange our inveftigations
under the fame three heads, to which our European analyfts have inge-
nioully reduced all the branches of human knowledge ; and my prefent
addrefs to the fociety fhall be confined to hiftory, civil and natural, or
the obfervation and remembrance of mere fads, independently of ratio-
cination, which belongs to philofophy, or of imitations zndfubjiitutions,
which are the province of art.
Were a fuperior created intelligence to delineate a map of general
knowledge (exclufively of that fublime and ftupendous theology, which
himfelf could only hope humbly to knov/ by an infinite approximation)
he would probably, begin by tracing with Newton the fyftem of the uni-
verfe, in which he would affign the true place to our little globe ; and,
having enumerated its various inhabitants, contents, and produdlions,
would proceed to man in his natural ftation among animals, exhibiting
a detail of all the knowledge attained or attainable by the human race ;
and
CIVIL AND NATURAL. I45
and thus obferving, perhaps, the fame order, in which he had before de-
fcribed other beings in other inhabited worlds : but, though Bacon feems
to have had a fimilar reafon for placing the hiftory of Nature before that
of Man, or the whole before one of its parts, yet, confiftently with our
chief objed: already mentioned, we may properly begin with the civil
hiftory of the five Afiatick nations, which necellarily comprifes their
Geography, or a defcription of the places^ where they have afted, and
their aftronomy, which may enable us to fix with fome accuracy the
time of their adtions : we fhall thence be led to the hiilory of fuch other
animals, of fuch minerals, and of fuch vegetables, as they may be fuppofed
to have found in their feveral migrations and fettlements, and fhall end
with the ufes to which they have applied, or may apply, the rich afiem-
blage of natural fubflances.
L In the firft place, we cannot furely deem it an inconfiderable ad-
vantage, that all our hiftorical refearches have confirmed the Mofaick
accounts of the primitive world ; and our teftimony on that fubjedl ought
to have the greater weight, becaufe, if the refult of our obfervations had
been totally different, we fhould neverthelefs have publifhed them, not in-
deed with equal pleafure, but with equal confidence; for Truth is mighty,
and, whatever be its confequences, miijl always prevail: but, independently
of our intereft in corroborating the multiplied evidences of revealed reli-
gion, we could fcarce gratify our minds with a more ufeful and rational
entertainment, than the contemplation of thofe wonderful revolutions in
kingdoms and ftates, which have happened within little more than
four thoufand years ; revolutions, almoft as fully demonftrative of an all-
ruling Providence, as the flrufture of the univerfe and the final caufes,
which are difcernible in its whole extent and even in its minuteft parts.
Figure to your imaginations a moving picture of that eventful period,
or rather a fuccefiion of crouded fcenes rapidly changed. Three families
migrate in different courfes from one region, and, in about four cen-
voL. I. V turies.
146 ON ASIATICK HISTORY,
turies, eftablifh very diflant governments and various modes of focietv :
Egyptians, Indians, Goths, Phenicians, Celts, Greeks, Latians, Chinefe,
Peruvians, Mexicans, all fprung from the fame immediate flem, appear
to flart nearly at one time, and occupy at length thofe countries, to
which they have given, or from which they have derived, their names:
in twelve or thirteen hundred years more the Greeks overrun the land of
their forefathers, invade India, conquer Egypt, and aim at univerfal do-
minion J but the Romans appropriate to themfelves the whole empire of
Greece, and carry their arms into Britain, of which they fpeak with
haughty contempt : the Goths, in the fulnefs of time, break to pieces
the unwieldy Coloffiis of Roman power, and feize on the whole of Bri-
tain, except its wild mountains ; but even thofe wilds become fubjedl
to other invaders of the fame Gothick lineage : during all thefe tranfac-
tions, the Arabs pofTefs both coafls of the Red Sea, fubdue the old feat
of their firft progenitors, and extend their conquefts on one fide,
through Africk, into Europe itfelf ; on another, beyond the borders of
India, part of which they annex to their flourifhing empire : in the fame
interval the Tartars, widely difFufed over the refl of the globe, fwarm
in the north-eaft, whence they rufli to complete the reduction of Con-
stantine's beautiful domains, to fubjugate China, to raife in thefe In-
dian realms a dynafty fplendid and powerful, and to ravage, like the two
other families, the devoted regions of Iran : by this time the Mexica?iS'
and Peruvians, with many races of adventurers varioufly intermixed,
have peopled the continent and illes of America, which the Spaniards,
having reflored their old government in Europe, difcover and in part
overcome : but a colony from Britain, of which Cicero ignorantly
declared, that it contained nothing valuable, obtain the poffeflion, and finally
the fovereign dominion, of extenfive American diftridls ; whilft other
Britijh fubjedls acquire a fubordinate empire in the fineft provinces of
India, which the vidiorious troops of Alexander were unwilling to at-
tack. This outline of human tranfadions, as far as it includes the limits
of
CIVIL AND NATURAL. I47
oi Ajta, wc can only hope to fill up, to flrengthen, and to colour, by
the help of Ajiatick literature ; for in hiftory, as in law, we muft not
follow ftreams, when we may inveftigate fountains, nor admit any fecon-
dary proof, where primary evidence is attainable : I fliould, neverthelefs,
make a bad return for your indulgent attention, were I to repeat a dry
lift: of all the Mufclman hift:orians, whofe works are preferved in Arabick,
Perfian, and TurkiJJ.i, or expatiate on the hiftiories and medals of China
and Japan, which may in time be acceffible to members of our Society,
and from which alone we can expedl information concerning the an-
cient fl:ate of the Tartars; but on the hiftiory oi India, which we na-
turally confider as the centre of our enquiries, it may not be fuperfluous
to prefent you with a few particular obfervations.
Our knowledge of civil Ajiatick hiflory (I always except that of the
Hebrews) exhibits a {hort evening twilight in the venerable introdudlion
to the firft: book of Moses, followed by a gloomy night, in which dif-
ferent watches are faintly difcernible, and at length we fee a dawn fuc-
ceeded by a funrife more or lefs early according to the diverfity of
regions. That no Hindu nation, but the CaJIjmiriansy have left us re-
gular hIft:ories in their ancient language, we muft: ever lament ; but
from Sanjcrit literature, which our country h^s the honour of having
unveiled, we may ft:ill colledl fome rays of hiftorical truth, though time
and a feries of revolutions have obfcured that light, which we might
reafonably have expelled from fo diligent and ingenious a people. The
numerous Purdnas and Itihdjas, or poems mythological and heroick, are
completely in our power ; and from them we may recover fome disfi-
gured, but valuable, pidlures of ancient manners and governments; while
the popular tales of the Hindus, in profe and in verfe, contain fragments
of hiftory ; and even in their dramas we may find as many real charac-
ters and events, as a future age might find in our own plays, if all hif-
tories of Rngland were, like thofe of India, to be irrecoverably loft: : for
example.
148 ON ASIATICK HISTORY,
example, a moft beautiful poem by So'made'va, comprifing a very long
chain of inftructive and agreeable flories, begins with the famed revo-
lution atP^/^/z))a/^rabythemurderof KingNANDA, vi^ith his eight fons,
and the ufurpation of Chandragupta ; and the fame revolution is the
fubjed: of a tragedy in Saiifcrit, entitled the Coronation of Chandra, the
abbreviated name of that able and adventurous ufurper. From thefe, once
concealed but now accefTible, compofitions, we are enabled to exhibit a
more accurate fketch of old Indian hiftory than the world has yet feen,
efpecially with the aid of well-attefted obfervations on the places of the
colures. It is now clearly proved, that the firft Pur ana contains an ac-
count of the deluge, between which and the Mohammedan conquefts the
hiftory of genuine Hindu government muft of courfe be comprehended j
but we know from an arrangement of the feafons in the aftronomical
work of Para's AR A, that the war of the Pa'ndavas could not have hap-
pened earlier than the clofe of the twelfth century before Christ, and
Seleucus muft, therefore, have reigned about nine centuries after that
war: now the age of Vicrama'ditya is given; and, if we can fix on an
Indian prince, contemporary with Seleucus, we fhall have three given
points in the line of time between Rama, or the firft Indian colony, and
Chandrabi'ja, the laft iJ/W« monarch, who reigned mBehdr ; fothat
only eight hundred or a thoufand years will remain almoft wholly dark j
and they muft have been employed in railing empires or ftates, in fram-
ing laws, in improving languages and arts, and in obferving the apparent
motions of the celeftial bodies. A Sanfcr it hx9ioxy of the celebrated Vi-
crama'ditya was infpefted at Banares by a Pandit, who would not have
deceived me, and could not himfelf have been deceived ; but the owner
of the book is dead and his family difperfed ; nor have my friends in
that city been able, with all their exertions, to procure a copy of it:
as to the Mogul conquefts, with which modern Indian hiftory begins,
we have ample accounts of them in Perfian, from An of Tezd and the
tranflations of Turkifi books compofed even by fome of the conquerors,
to
CIVIL AND NATURAL. I49
to Ghula'm Husain, whom many of us perfonally know, and whofe
impartiality deferves the higheft applaufe, though his unrewarded merit
will give no encouragement to other contemporary hiflorians, who, to
ufe his own phrafe in a letter to myfelf, may, like him, confider plain
truth as the beauty of hijlorical conipofition. From all thefe materials, and
from thefe alone, a perfecfl hiftory o^ India (if a mere compilation, how-
ever elegant, could deferve fuch a title) might be collected by any flu-
dious man, who had a competent knowledge of Sanfcrit, Perfiati, and
Arabick ; but, even in the work of a writer fo qualified, we could only
give abfolute credence to the general outline j for, while the abftrad
fciences are all truth, and the fine arts all fidlion, we cannot but own,
that, in the details of hijlory, truth and fiftion are fo blended as to be
fcarce diflinguifhable.
The pradlical ufe of hiilory, in affording particular examples of civil and
military wifdom, has been greatly exaggerated ; but principles of aftion
may certainly be collecfted from it ; and even the narrative of wars and
revolutions may ferve as a lefibn to nations and an admonition to fove-
reigns : a defire, indeed, of knowing pafi; events, while the future
cannot be known, and a view of the prefent gives often more pain than
delight, feems natural to the human mind ; and a happy propenfity
would it be, if every reader of hiflory would open his eyes to fome very
important corollaries, which flow from the whole extent of it. He could
not but remark the conftant effect of defpotifm in benumbing and de-
bafing all thofe faculties, which diftinguiih men from the herd, that
grazes; and to that caufe he would impute the decided inferiority of
moft Afiatick nations, ancient and modern, to thofe in Europe, who are
bleft with happier governments ; he would fee the Arabs rifing to glory,
while they adhered to the free maxims of their bold anceftors, and fink-
ing to mifery from the moment, when thofe maxims were abandoned.
On the otiier hand he would obfcrve with regret, that fuch republican
governments
1:50 OxN ASIATICK HISTORY,
governments as tend to produce virtue and happinefs, cannot in their
nature be permanent, but are generally fucceeded by Oligarchies, w'^hich
no good man would wifh to be durable. He would then, like the
king oi Lydia, remember Solon, the wifeil, braveft, and nofl accom-
pliihed of men, who afferts, in four nervous lines, that, " as hail and
*' fnow, which mar the labours of hufbandmen, proceed from elevated
" clouds, and, as the deilruftive thunderbolt follows the brilliant flajlo,
" thus is a free fate ruined by men exalted in power and fplendid in
" wealth, while the people, from grofs igiiorance, chufe rather to becojne
" thefaves of one tyrant, that they may efcape from the domination of
" many, than to preferve themfelves from tyranny of any kind by their
" union and their virtues." Since, therefore, no unmixed form of go-
vernment could both deferve permanence and enjoy it, and fmce changes
even from the worfl to the befl, are always attended with much tem-
porary mifchief, he would fix on our Britijh conftitution (I mean our
publick law, not the adlualy?^^^ of things in any given period) as the beil:
form ever eftabliflied, though we can only make diftant approaches to its
theoretical perfedtion. In thefe Indian territories, which providence
has thrown into the arms of Britain for their protedlion and welfare, the
religion, manners, and laws of the natives preclude even the idea of po-
litical freedom j but their hiftories may poflibly fuggeft hints for their
profperity, while our country derives eflential benefit from the diligence
of a placid and fubmiflive people, who multiply with fuch increafe, even
after the ravages of famine, that, in one colled;orf]iip out o^ twenty-four,
and that by no means thelargeft or beft cultivated (I mean Crlfma-nagar )
there have lately been found, by an adlual enumeration, zfnillion and three
hundred thoijand native irihabitants ; whence it fhould fccm, that in all
India there cannot now be fewer than thirty millions oihXzckBritif fubjecfls.
Let us proceed to geography and chronology, without which hiflory
would be no certain guide, but would refemble a kindled vapour without
either
CIVIL AND NATURAL. 151
either a fettled place or a fteady light. For a reafon before intimated
I fliall not name the various cofmographical books, which are extant
in Arabick and Perjian, nor give an account of thofe, U'hich the Turks
have beautifully printed in their own improved language, but fhall ex-
patiate a little on the geography and aftronomy of India ; having firft
obferved generally, that all the AJiatick nations muft be far better ac-
quainted with their feveral countries than mere European fcholars and tra-
vellers; that, confequently, we muft learn their geography from their own
writings ; and that, by collating many copies of the fame work, we may
corredt the blunders of tranfcribers in tables, names, and defcriptions.
Geography, aftronomy, and chronology have, in this part of Ajia,
fharedthe fate of authentick hiftory, and, like that, have been fo mafked
and bedecked in the fantaftick robes of mythology and metaphor, that the
real fyftem of Lidian philofophers and mathematicians can fcarce be
diftinguiflied : an accurate knowledge of Sanfcrit and a confidential in-
tercourfe with learned Brdhmens, are the only means of feparating truth
from fable ; and we may exped: the moft important difcoveries from
two of our members ; concerning whom it may be fafely aflerted, that,
if our fociety fliould have produced no other advantage than the invita-
tion given to them for the publick difplay of their talents, we fl:iould
have a claim to the thanks of our country and of all Europe. Lieutenant
WiLFOK Dhas exhibited an interefting fpecimenof the geographical know-
ledge deducible from the Purdnas, and will in time prefent you with fo
complete a treatife on the ancient world known to the Hindus, that the
light acquired by the Gr^^/Jj will appear but a glimmering in comparilbn
of that, which He will diffufe ; while Mr. Davis, who has given us a
diftindt idea of Indian computations and cycles, and afcertained the place
of the colures at a time of great importance in hiftory, will hereafter
difclofe the fyftems of i/;Wz^ aftronomers from Na'red andPARA'sAR to
Mey A, Var a'h AMIHIR, and Bha'scar, and will foon, I truft, lay before
you
152 ON ASIATICK HISTORY,
you a perfedl delineation of all the Indian afterifms in both hemifpheres,
where you will perceive fo ftrong a general refemblance to the conftel-
lations of the Greeks, as to prove that the two fyftems were originally
one and the fame, yet with fuch a diverfity in parts, as to fliow incon-
teflably, that neither fyflem was copied from the other ; whence it will
follow, that they 7niiJ} have had fome common fource.
The jurifprudence of the Hindus and Arabs being the field, which I
have chofen for my peculiar toil, you cannot expeft, that I fliould greatly
enlarge your colle^ftion of hiflorical knowledge ; but I may be able to
offer you fome occafional tribute, and I cannot help mentioning a dif-
covery, which accident threw in my way; though my proofs muft be
referved for an eflay, which I have deftined for the fourth volume of your
Tranfacflions. To fix the fituation of that Palibothra (for there may
have been feveral of the name), which was vifited and defcribed by Me-
GASTHENES had always appeared a very difficult problem ; for, though it
could not have been Prayaga, where no ancient metropolis ever flood,
nor Canyacubja, which has no epithet at all refembling the word ufed by
the Greeks, nor Gaur, otherwife called Lacjhmanavati, which all know
to be a town comparatively modern, yet we could not confidently decide
that it was Fataliputra, though names and moft circumftances nearly
correfpond, becaufe that renowned capital extended from the confluence
of the Sone and the Ganges to the fcite of Patna, while Palibothra ftood
at the jundlion of the Ganges and Erannoboas, which the accurate M.
D'Anville had pronounced to be the Tamuna : but this only difficulty
was removed, when I found in a claffical Sanfcrit book, near two
thoufand years old, that Hiranyabahu, or golden-armed, which the Greeks
changed into Erannoboas^ or the river ivith a lovely murmur, was in fadt
another name for the Sona itfelf, though Megasthenes, from igno-
rance or inattention, has named them ieparately. This difcovery led
to another of greater moment; for Chan drag up t a, who, from a
military
CIVIL AND NATURAL. 153
military adventurer, became, like SandracottLfs, the fovereign of
upper Hindujian, adlually fixed the feat of his empire at Pataliputra,
where he received ambafladors from foreign princes, and was no other
than that very Sandracottus, who concluded a treaty with Seleu-
cus NiCATOR; io that we have folved another problem, to which we
before alluded, and may in round numbers confider the twelve and three
hundredth years before Christ as two certain epochs between Ra'ma,
who conquered Silan a few centuries after the flood, and Vicrama'di-
TYA, who died at Ujjayhn fifty-feven years before the beginning of our era.
II. Since thefe difcuflions would lead us too far, I proceed to the
hiftory of Nature diftinguiflied, for our prefent purpofe, from that of
Man ; and divided into that of other animals, who inhabit this globe, of
the mineral (wh^-xncts, which it contains, and oi ih.tvegetables, which fo
luxuriantly and fo beautifully adorn it.
1 . Could the figure, inftindls, and qualities of birds, beads, infefts,
reptiles, and fifli be afcertained, either on the planof Buffon, or on that
of LiNN^us, without giving pain to the objedls of our examination, few
ftudies would afford us more folid inftrudlion or more exquifite delight ;
but I never could learn by what right, nor conceive with what feelings,
a naturalift can occafion the mifery of an innocent bird and leave ^its
young, perhaps, to perifli in a cold neft, becaufe it has gay plumage
and has never been accurately delineated, or deprive even a butterfly of
its natural enjoyments, becaufe it has the misfortune to be rare or beau-
tiful; nor fliall I ever forget the couplet of Firdausi, for which Sadi,
who cites it with applaufe, pours blefiings on his departed fpirit :
Ah ! fpare yon emmet, rich in hoarded grain :
He lives with pleafure, and he dies with pain.
VOL. I.
This
154 ON ASIATICK HISTORY,
This may be only a confeflion of weaknefs, and it certainly is not meant
as a boaft of peculiar fcnfibility ; but, whatever name may be given to
my opinion, it has fuch an effedt on my condud, that I never would
fuffer the Cocila, whofe wild native woodnotes announce the approach
of fpring, to be caught in my garden for the fake of comparing it with
Buffon's defcription; though I have often examined the domeflick and
encao-ino- Mayana, which bids us good morrow at our windows, and ex-
pe(fl:s, as its reward, little more than fecurity : even when a fine young
Manis or Pangolin was brought me, againft my wifli, from the moun-
tains, I folicited his refloration to his beloved rocks, becaufe I found
it impoflible to preferve him in comfort at a diftance from them. There
are feveral treatifes on animals in Arabick, and very particular accounts
of them in Chinefe with elegant outlines of their external appearance ;
but I have met with nothing valuable concerning them in Perjian, ex-
cept what may be gleaned from the medical didlionaries ; nor have I yet
feen a book in Sanfcrit, that exprefsly treats of them : on the whole,
though rare animals may be found in all AJia, yet I can only recommend
an examination of them with this condition, that they be left, as much
as poflible, in a ftate of natural freedom, or made as happy as pofTible,
if it be neceflary to keep them confined.
2. The hiftory of minerals, to which no fuch obje<ftion can be made,
is extremely fimple and eafy, if we merely confider their exterior look
and configuration, and their vifible texture ; but the analyfis of their in-
ternal properties belongs particularly to the fublime refearches of Chy-
miftry, on which we may hope to find ufeful difquifitions in Sanfcrit,
fince the old Hindus unqueftionably applied themfelves to that enchant-
ing fludy ; and even from their treatifes on alchymy we may pofiibly
collect the refults of adlual experiment, as their ancient aftrological
works have preferved many valuable fadls relating to the Indian fphere
and the prccefilon of the equinox : both in Perjian and SaJifcrit there
are
CIVIL AND NATURAL. 155
are books on metals and minerals, particularly on gems, which the Hindu
philofophers confidered (with an exception of the diamond) as varieties
of one cryflalline fubftance either fimple or compound : but we muft
not expedl from the chymifts of ^Jia thofe beautiful examples of analyfis,
which have but lately been difplayed in the laboratories of Europe.
3. We now come to Botany, the loveliefl and mofl copious divifion
in the hillory of nature ; and, all difputes on the comparative merit of
fyftems being at length, I hope, condemned to ojie perpetual night of
undijlurbed Jliimher , we cannot employ our leifure more delightfully, than
in defcribing all new Afmtick plants in the Linnaan ftyle and method,
or in correding the defcriptions of thofe already known, but of which
dry fpecimens only, or drawings, can have been feen by mofl European
botanifts : in this part of natural hiftory we have an ample field yet
unexplored ; for, though many plants of Arabia have been made known
by Garcias, Prosper Alpinus, and Forskoel, oi Perjia, by Gar-
ciN, oi Tartary, by Gmelin and Pallas, of China and "Japan, by
KcEMPFER, OsBECK, and Thunberg, of India, by Rheede and
RuMPHius, the two Burmans, and the much-lamented Koenig, yet
none of thofe naturalifts were deeply verfed in the literature of the feve-
ral countries, from which their vegetable treafures had been procured ;
and the numerous works in Sanfcrit on medical fubftances, and chiefly
on plants, have never been infpedted, or never at leafl underflood, by
any European attached to the fludy of nature. Until the garden of the
India Company fliall be fully flored (as it will be, no doubt, in due
time) with Arabian, Perjian, and Chinefe plants, we may well be fitif-
iied with examining the native flowers of our own provinces j but, un-
lefs we can difcover the Sanfcrit names of all celebrated vegetables, we
fhall neither comprehend the allufions, which Indian poets perpetually
make to them, nor (what is far worfe) be able to find accounts of their
tried virtues in the writings of Indian phyficiaas ; and (uhat is worfl of
all)
156 ON ASIATICK HISTORY,
all) we ihall mifs an opportunity, which never again may prefent itfelf j
for the Pandits themfelves have almofl wholly forgotten their ancient
appellations of particular plants, and, with all my pains, I have not yet
afcertained more than two hundred out of twice that number, which are
named in their medical or poetical compofitions. It is much to be de-
plored, that the illuftrious Van Rheede had no acquaintance with
Sanfcrit, which even his three Brahmens, who compofed the fliort pre-
face engraved in that language, appear to have underftood very im-
perfedtly, and certainly wrote with difgraceful inaccuracy : in all his
twelve volumes I recolle<fl: only Punarnava, in which the Ndgari letters
are tolerably right ; the Hindu words in Arabian charadters are Shame-
fully incorre(ft ; and the Malabar, I am credibly informed, is as bad as
the reft. His dehneations, indeed, are in general excellent ; and, though
LiNN^us himfelf could not extradl from his written defcriptions the
natural character of every plant in the colledrion, yet we fliall be able, I
hope, to defcribe them all from the life, and to add a confiderable num-
ber oi ncvf /pedes, if not of new genera, which Rheede, with all his
noble exertions, could never procure. Such of our learned members, as
profefs medicine, will, no doubt, cheerfully affift in thefe refearches,
either by their own obfervations, when they have leifure to make any,
or by communications from other obfervers among their acquaintance,
who may refide in different parts of the country : and the mention of
their art leads me to the various ufes of natural fubftances, in the three
kingdoms or claffes to which they are generally reduced.
III. You cannot but have remarked, that almoft all the Jciences, as
the French call them, which are diftinguiflied by Greek names and ar-
ranged under the head of philofophy, belong for the moft part to hif-
tory ; fuch are philology, chymiftry, phyficks, anatomy, and even meta-
phyficks, when we barely relate the phenomena of the human mind ; for,
in all branches of knowledge, we are only hiftorians, when we announce
fads,
CIVIL AND NATURAL. I57
tads, and philofophers, only when we reafon on them : the fame may
be confidently faid of law and of medicine, the firfl: of which belongs
principally to civil, and the fecond chiefly to natural, hiftory. Here,
therefore, I fpeak of medicine^ as fir only as it is grounded on experi-
ment ; and, without believing implicitly what Arabs, Perfians, Chinefe,
or Hindus may have written on the virtues of medicinal fubftances, we
may, furely, hope to find in their writings what our own experiments
may confirm or difprove, and what might never have occurred to us
without fuch intimations.
Europeans enumerate more than tivo hundred and ffty mechanical
arts, by which the produ<3:ions of nature may be varioufly prepared for
the convenience and ornament of life j and, though the Silpafdjira reduce
them to Jixty-four, yet Abu'lfazl had been afTured, that the Hindus
reckoned three hundred arts and fciences : now, their fciences being com-
paratively few, we may conclude, that they anciently pradlifed at leafl as
many ufeful arts as ourfelves. Several Pandits have informed me, that
the treatifes on art, which they call Upavcdas and believe to have been
infpired, are not fo entirely lofl, but that confiderable fragments of them
may be found at Panares ; and they certainly pofTefs many popular, but
ancient, works on that interefling fubjeft. The manufadlures of fugar
and indigo have been well known in thefe provinces for more than two
thoufand years ; and we cannot entertain a doubt, that their Sanfcrit
books on dying and metallurgy contain very curious fadls, which might,
indeed, be difcovered by accident in a long courfe of years, but w^hich
we may foon bring to light, by the help of Indian literature, for the be-
nefit of manufadurers and artifls, and confequently of our nation, who
are interefled in their profperity. Difcoveries of the fame kind might
be collefted from the writings of other Afiatick nations, efpecially of
the Chinefe j but, though Perfian, Arabick, Turkifi, and Sanfcrit are lan-
guages now fo accefTible, that, in order to obtain a fulticient knowledge
of
158 ON ASIATICK HISTORY, CIVIL, L^c.
of them, little more feems required than a ftrong inclination to learn
them, yet the fuppofed number and intricacy of the Chhicfe chara(5lers
have deterred our moft diligent ftudents from attempting to find their
way through fo vaft a labyrinth : it is certain, however, that the dif-
ficulty has been magnified beyond the truth ; for the perfpicuous gram-
mar by M. FouRMONT, together with a copious diftionary, which I
pollefs, in Ckinefe and Latin, would enable any man, who pleafed, to
compare the original works of Confucius, which are eafily procured,
with the literal tranflation of them by Couplet; and, having made
that firft ftep with attention, he would probably find, that he had tra-
verfed at leafi: half of his career. But I fliould be led beyond the limits
afligned to me on this ooCafion, if I were to expatiate farther on the
hiftorical divifion of the knowledge comprifed in the literature of yijia ;
and I muft pofi;pone till next year my remarks on ylfiatick philofophy
and on thofe arts, which depend on imagination ; promifing you with
confidence, that, in the courfe of the prefent year, your inquiries into the
civil and natural hiftory of this eall:ern world will be greatly promoted by
the learned labours of many among our aflbciates and correfpondents.
DISCOURSE
DISCOURSE THE ELEVENTH.
ON
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE ASIATICKS.
DELIVERED 20 FEBRUARY, I794.
BY
The president.
XXAD it been of any importance, gentlemen, to arrange thefe anni-
verfary differtations according to the ordinary progrefs of the human
mind, in the gradual expanfion of its three moil; confiderable powers,
memory, imagination, and reafon, I (hould certainly have prefented you
with an eflay on the liberal arts of the five Afiatick nations, before I
produced my remarks on their ahJlraSl fciences ; becaufe, from my own
obfervation at leaft, it feems evident, that fancy, or the faculty of com-
bining our ideas agreeably by various modes of imitation and fubflitu-
tion, is in general earlier exercifed, and fooner attains maturity, than the
power of feparating and comparing thofe ideas by the laborious exer-
tions of intellecft ; and hence, I believe, it has happened, that all nations
in the world had poets before they had mere philofophers : but, as M.
D'x'\lembert has deliberately placed fcience before art, as the queftion
of
] 60 ON THE nilLOSOPHY
of precedence is, on this occafion, of no moment whatever, and as many
new fafts on the fubjedl oi ylfiatick philofophy are frefli in my remem-
brance, I propofe to addrefs you now on the fciences of Afia, referving
for our next annual meeting a difquifition concerning thofe fine arts,
which have immemorially been cultivated, with different fuccefs and in
very different modes, witliin the circle of our common inquiries.
By faience I mean an aflemblagc of tranfcendental propofitions dif-
coverable by human reafon, and reducible to firfl principles, axioms, or
maxims, from which they may all be derived in a regular fuccellion; and
there are conlequently as many fciences as there are general objedls of
our intelledlual powers : when man firft exerts thofe powers, his objedls
are himfelfznd the reft o^ nature ; himfelf he perceives to be compofed
of body and mind, and in his individual capacity, he reafons on the ufes of
his animal frame and of its parts both exteriour and internal, on the
diforders impeding the regular functions of thofe parts, and on the mofl
probable methods of preventing thofe diforders or of removing them ;
he foon feels the clofe connexion between his corporeal and mental
faculties, and when his mind is refledled on itfelf, he difcourfes on its
ejjence and its operations ; in his facial charadter, he analyzes his various
duties and rights both private and publick j and in the leifure, which the
fulleft difcharge of thofe duties always admits, his intelled: is diredled to
nature at large, to the fiibjlance of natural bodies, to their feveral pro-
perties, and to their quantity both feparate and united, finite and infinite j
from all which objedls he deduces notions, either purely abflradl and
univerfal, or mixed with undoubted fadts, he argues from phenomena
to theorems, from thofe theorems to other phenomena, from caufes to
effefts, from effefts to caufes, and thus arrives at the demonflration of a
frjl intelligent caufe ; whence his colledled wifdom, being arranged in the
form of fcience, chiefly confifts of phyfiology and 7!iedicine, metaphyficks
and logick, etblcks xnAjiirifprudenct', natural philofophy and mathematicks;
from
OF THE ASIATICKS. 1 (j 1
from which the religion of nature (fince revealed religion mull; be refer-
red to hijiory, as alone affording evidence of it) has in all ages and in all
nations been the fublime and confoling refult. Without profefling to
have given a logical definition of fcience, or to have exhibited a per-
fedl enumeration of its objefts, I Hiall confine myfelf to thofe Jive
divilions of AJiatick philofophy, enlarging for the mofl part on the
progrefs which the Hindus have made in them, and occafionally intro-
ducing the fciences of the Arabs and Perjians, the Tartars^ and the
Chinefe ; but, how extenfive foever may be the range which I have
chofen, I fhall beware of exhaufting your patience with tedious difcuf-
fions, and of exceeding thofe limits, which the occalion of our prefent
meeting has neceffarily prefcribed.
I. The firlT: article aiTords little fcope ; lince I have no evidence, that,
in any language of AJia, there exifts one original treatife on medicine
confidered as a fcience : phyfick, indeed, appears in thefe regions to have
been from time immemorial, as we fee it pradlifed at^this day by Hindus
and Mufelmdns, a mere empirical hiJlory of difeafes and remedies ;
ufeful, I admit, in a high degree, and worthy of attentive examina-
tion, but wholly foreign to the fubjedt before us : though the Arabs ,
however, have chiefly followed the Greeks in this branch of knowledge,
and have themfelves been implicitly followed by other Mohammedan
writers, yet (not to mention the Chinefe, of whofe medical works I can
at prefent fay nothing with confidence) we ftill have accefs to a number
of Sanfcrit books on the old Indian practice of phyfick, from which, it
the Hindus had a theoretical fyflem, we might eafily coiled: it. The
Ayurveda, fuppofed to be the work of a celeflial phyfician, is almofl
entirely loft, unfortunately perhaps for the curious European, but hap-
pily for the patient Hindu ; fmce a revealed fcience precludes improve-
ment from experience, to which that of medicine ought, above all
others, to be left perpetually open ; but I have myfelf met with curious
VOL. I. A. A fragments
162 ON THE PHILOSOPHY
fragments of that primeval work, and, in the Veda itfelf, I found with
aflonifhment an entire TJpanipad on the internal parts of the human
body ; with an enumeration of nerves, veins, and arteries, a defcription
of the heart, fpleen, and liver, and various difquifitions on the forma-
tion and growth of the fetus : from the laws, indeed, of Menit, which
have lately appeared in our own language, we may perceive, that the
ancient Hindus were fond of reafoning in their way on the myfteries of
animal generation, and on the comparative influence of the fexes in the
production of perfedl offspring ; and we may colledt from the authorities
adduced in the learned Eflay on Egypt and the Nile, that their phyfio-
logical difputes led to violent fchifms in religion, and even to bloody
wars. On the whole, we cannot expeft to acquire many valuable
truths from an examination of eaflern books on the fcience of medicine;
but examine them we muft, if we wifh to complete the hiflory of
univerfal philofophy, and to fupply the fcholars of Europe with authen-
tick materials for an account of the opinions anciently formed on this
head by the philofophers of AJia : to know, indeed, with certainty,
that fo much and no more can be known on any branch of fcience,
would in itfelf be very important and ufeful knowledge, if it had no
other effe<ft than to check the boundlefs curiofity of mankind, and to
fix them in the ftraight path of attainable fcience, efpecially of fuch
as relates to their duties and may conduce to their happinefs.
II. We have an ample field in the next divifion, and a field almoft
wholly new ; fince the mytaphyficks and logick of the Brdhmens, com-
prifed in their fix philofophical Sdftras, and explained by numerous
glofles or comments, have never yet been acceflible to Europeans ; and,
by the help of the Sanfcrit language, we now may read the works of the
Saugatas, Bauddhas, A'rhatas, Jainas, and other heterodox philofophers,
whence we may gather the metaphyfical tenets prevalent in C/iina and
Japan, in the eaflern peninfula of India, and in many confiderable
nations
OF THE ASIATICKS. 1 (js
nations of Tartary : there are alio fome valuable tracfts on thefe
branches of fcience in Perjjan and Arabick, partly copied from the
Greeks, and partly comprifing the dodtrines of the Sufis which an-
ciently prevailed, and Itill prevail in great meafure over this oriental
world, and which the Greeks themfelves condefcended to borrow from
eaflern fages.
The little treatife in four chapters, afcribed to Vydfa, is the only
philofophical Sajlra, the original text of which I have had leifure to
peruie with a Brahmen of the Veddnti fchool : it is extremely obfcure,
and, though compofed in fentences elegantly modulated, has more re-
femblance to a table of contents, or an accurate fummary, than to a
regular fyftematical trad ; but all its obfcurity has been cleared by the
labour of the very judicious and moft learned Sancara, whofe com-
mentary on the Vedanta, which I read alfo with great attention, not only
elucidates every word of the text, but exhibits a perfpicuous account of
all other Indian fchools, from that of Capila to thofe of the more mo-
dern hereticks. It is not poffible, indeed, to fpeak with too much ap-
plaufe of fo excellent a work ; and I am confident in afferting, that, until
an accurate tranflation of it fhall appear in fome European language, the
general hiftory of philofophy mufl remain incomplete; for I perfedlly
agree with thofe, who are of opinion, that one corredl vcrfion of any
celebrated Hindu book would be of greater value than all the dilTer-
tations or eflays, that could be compofed on the fame fubjed: ; you
will not, however, exped:, that, in fuch a difcourfe as I am now deliver-
ing, I fhould expatiate on the diverfity oi Indian philofophical fchools,
on the feveral founders of them, on the dodrines, which they refpec-
tively taught, or on their many difciples, who diflented from their
inftrudlors in fome particular points. On the prefent occafion, it will
be fufficient to fay, that the oldeft head of a fedl, whofe entire work is
preferved, was (according to fome authors) Capila ; not the divine
perfonage,
164 ON THE PHILOSOPHY
perfonage, a reputed grandfon of Brahma', to whom Cri shna
compares himfelf in the Gita, but a fage of his name, who invented
the Sdnchya, or Numeral, philofophy, which Cri'shna himfelf appears
to impugn in his converfation with Arjuna, and which, as far as I can
recolleft it from a few original texts, refembled in part the metaphyficks
of Pythagoras, and in part the theology of Zeno : his dodrines were
enforced and illuflrated, with fome additions, by the venerable Patan-
JALI, who has alfo left us a fine comment on the grammatical rules of
Pa'nini, which are more obfcure, without a glofs, than the darkeft
oracle ; and here by the way let me add, that I refer to metaphyficks the
curious and important fcience of univerfal grammar, on which many
fubtil difquifitions may be found interfperfed in the particular grammars
of the ancient Hindus, and in thofe of the more modern Arabs. The
next founder, I believe, of a philofophical fchool was Go'tama, if,
indeed, he was not the moft ancient of all ; for his wife Ahaly a was,
according to Indian legends, reftored to a human {hape by the great
Ra'ma j and a fage of his name, whom we have no reafon to fuppofe a
different perfonage, is frequently mentioned in the Feda itfelf ; to his
rational dodlrines thofe of Canada were in general conformable j and
the philofophy of them both is ufually called Nydya, or logical, a title
aptly bellowed ; for it feems to be a fyftem of metaphyficks and logick
better accommodated than any other anciently known in India, to the
natural reafon and common fenfe of mankind; admitting the aftual
exiflence of rnatcrial fubjlance in the popular acceptation of the word
matter, and comprifing not only a body of fublime dialedlicks, but an
artificial method of reafoning, with diflind: names for the three parts of
a propofition, and even for thofe of a regular fyllogifm. Here I cannot
refrain from introducing a fingular tradition, which prevailed, accord-
ing to the well-informed author of the Dabijldn, in the Panjdb and in
feveral Perfian provinces, that, " among other Indian curiofities, which
" Callisthenes tranfmitted to his uncle, was a technical Jyjhm of logick,
" which
OF THE ASIATICKS. I65
** which the Brdhmens had communicated to the inquifitive Greek,'"
and which the Mohammedan writer fuppofes to have been the ground-
work of the famous Arijlotelean method : if this be true, it is one of
the moft interefting fails, that I have met with in yljia ; and if it be
falfe, it is very extraordinary, that fuch a ftory fhould have been fabri-
cated either by the candid Mohsani Fdni ; or by the fimple Pdrs'is
Pandits y with whom he had converfedj but, not having had
leifure to ftudy the Nydya Sdjlra, I can only allure you, that I
have frequently feen perfedt fyllogifms in the philofophical writings
of the Brdhmens, and have often heard them ufed in their verbal
controverfies. Whatever might have been the merit or age of
Go TAMA, yet the moft celebrated Indian fchool is that, with which
I began, founded by Vya'sa, and fupported in moft refpefts by his
pupil Jaimini, whofe diffent on a few points is mentioned by his
mafter with refpeiftful moderation : their feveral fyftems are frequently
diftinguiftied by the names of the firft and fecond Mimdnfd, a word,
which, like Nyaya, denotes the operations and conclufions of reafonj
but the traft of Vya'sa has in general the appellation of Veddnta, or
the fcope and end of the Veda, on the texts of which, as they were
underftood by the philofopher, who coUedled them, his dodtrines are
principally grounded. The fundamental tenet of the Veddnti fchool,
to which in a more modern age the incomparable San car a was a
firm and illuftrious adherent, conlifted, not in denying the exiftence of
matter, that is, of folidity, impenetrability, and extended figure (to
deny which would be lunacy), but, in corre(5ling the popular notion of
it, and in contending, that it has no eflence independent of mental per-
ception, that exiftence and perceptibility are convertible terms, that
external appearances and fenfations are illufory, and would vanifli into
nothing, if the divine energy, which alone fuftains them, were fuf-
pended but for a moment; an opinion, which Epicharmus and
Plato feem to have adopted, and which has been maintained in the
prefent
106 ON THE PHILOSOPHY
prefent century with great elegance, but v/ith little publick applaufe ;
partly becaufe it has been mifunderftood, and partly becaufe it has
been mifapplied by the falfe reafoning of fome unpopular writers,
who are faid to have difbelieved in the moral attributes of God,
whofe omniprefence, wifdom, and goodnefs are the bafis of the
Indian philofophy : I have not fufficient evidence on the fubjedt to
profefs a belief in the do<5lrine of the Vedcinta, which human reafon
alone could, perhaps, neither fully demonftrate, nor fully difprove ; but
it is manifeft, that nothing can be farther removed from impiety than
a fyftem wholly built on the purefl: devotion ; and the inexpreffible
difficulty, which any man, who fhall make the attempt, will afTuredly
find in giving a fatisfaftory definition of material fiibjlance, muft induce
us to deliberate with coolnefs, before we cenfure the learned and pious
reftorer of the ancient Veda ; though we cannot but admit, that, if the
common opinions of mankind be the criterion of philofophical truth,
we muft adhere to the fyftem of Go' t am a, which the Bi'dhmens of
this province almofl univerfally follow.
If the metaphyficks of the Veddntis be wild and erroneous, the
pupils of Buddha have run, it is aflerted, into an error diametrically
oppofite ; for they are charged with denying the exiilence of pure
fpirit, and with believing nothing abfolutely and really to exifl but
material fubjiance ; z heavy accufation which ought only to have been
made on pofitive and inconteflable proof, efpecially by the orthodox
Brdhmens, who, as Buddha diflented from their anceftors in regard
to bloody facrijices, which the Veda certainly prefcribes, may not un-
juftly be fufpeded of low and interefted malignity. Though I can-
not credit the charge, yet I am unable to prove it entirely falfe, having
only read a few pages of a Saiigata book, which Captain Kirkp atrick
had lately the kindnefs to give me ; but it begins, like other Hindu
books, with the word 0'?n, which we know to be a fymbol of the
divine
OF THE ASIATICKS. 1 G7
divine attributes : then follows, indeed, a myfterious hymn to the God-
defs of Nature, by the name of A'ryd, but with feveral other titles,
which the BraJunens themfelves continually beftow on their Devi ; now
the Brahmens, who have no idea, that any fuch perfonage exifls as
De'vi', or the Goddefs, and only mean to exprefs allegorically the poiuer
of God, exerted in creating, preferving and renovating this univerfe, we
cannot with juftice infer, that the diffenters admit no deity but vifible
nature: the Pandit, who now attends me, and who told Mr. Wilkins,
that the Saugatas were atheifts, would not have attempted to refifl the
decifive evidence of the contrary, which appears in the very inftrument,
on which he was confulted, if his underftanding had not been blinded
by the intolerant zeal of a mercenary priefthood. A literal verfion of
the book jurt: mentioned (if any fludious man had learning and induftry
equal to the tafk) would be an ineftimable treafure to the compiler of
fuch a hiftory as that of the laborious Brucker ; but let us proceed to
the morals zud jurifprudence of the AJiaticks, on which I could expatiate,
if the occafion admitted a full difcuflion of the fubjedl, with corredtnefs
and confidence.
III. That both ethicks and abftracft law might be reduced to the me^
thod of fcience, cannot furely be doubted ; but, although fuch a method
would be of infinite ufe in a fyflem of univerfal, or even of national,
jurifprudence, yet the principles of morality are fo few, fo luminous,
and fo ready to prefent themfelves on every occafion, that the pradlical
Utility of a fcientifical arrangement, in a treatife on ethicks, may very
juftly be queftioned. The moralifts of the eaft have in general chofen
to deliver their precepts in fliort fententious maxims, to illuflrate
them by iprightly comparifons, or to inculcate them in the very
ancient form of agreeable apoloques : there are, indeed, both in
Arabick and Perjian, philofophical tradls on ethicks written with
found ratiocination and elegant perfpicuity : but in every part of
this eaftern world, from Pekin to Damafcus, the popular teachers of
moral
168 ON THE PHILOSOPHY
moral wifdom have immemorially been poets, and there would be no
end of enumerating their works, which are ftill extant in the five prin-
cipal languages oi Afia. Our divine religion, the truth of which (if any
hiftory be true) is abundantly proved by hiflorical evidence, has no need
of fuch aids, as many are willing to give it, by aflerting, that the wifell
men of this world were ignorant of the two great maxims, that ive mujl
nEl in refpeSl of others y as we Jl^ould wiJJ} them to acl in refpeSl of our/elves,
and that, infead oi returning evil for tvil, we fiouhi confer be?iefits even on
thofe who injure us ; but the firfl: rule is implied in a fpeech of Lysias,
and exprefled in diftinft phrafes by Thales and Pittacus; and I
have even feen it word for word in the original of Confucius, which
I carefully compared with the Latin tranflation. It has been ufual with
zealous men, to ridicule and abufe all thofe, who dare en this point
to quote the Chinefe philofopher ; but, inftead of fupporting their
caufe, they would fhake it, if it could be fliaken, by their uncandid
afperity j for they ought to remember, that one great end of revelation,
as it is moft exprefsly declared, was not to inftrucft the wife and
few, but the many and unenlightened. If the converfation, therefore,
of the Pandits and Maulavis in this country fhall ever be attempted by
proteftant miffionaries, they muH: beware of afferting, while they teach
the gofpel of truth, what thofe Pandits and Maulavis would know to be
falfe : the former would cite the beautiful A'ryd couplet, which was
written at leafl three centuries before our era, and which pronounces
the duty of a good man, even in the moment of his deftrudlion, to con-
fift not only in forgiving, but even in a defire of benefiting, bis defrayer, as
the Sandal-Zri?^, in the infant of its overthrow, f^eds perfume on the axe,
which fells it ; and the latter would triumph in repeating the verfe of
Sadi\ who reprefents a return of good for good as a fight reciprocity, but
fays to the virtuous man, '■^Confer benefits on him, who has injured thee,''
ufing an Arabick fentence, and a maxim apparently of the ancient
Arabs. Nor would the Mifelmans fail to recite four diftichs of Ha'fiz,
who has illuftrated that maxim with fanciful but elegant allufions ;
Learii
OF THE ASIATICKS. 1 (J,^
Learn from yon orient fhell to love thy foe.
And ftore with pearls the hand, that brings thee wo :
Free, like yon rock, from bafe vindiftive pride,
Imblaze with gems the wrift, that rends thy fide :
Mark, where yon tree rewards the ilony fhow'r
With fruit nedtareous, or the balmy flow'r :
All nature calls aloud : " Shall man do lefs
Than heal the fmiter, and the railer blefs ?"
Now there is not a fhadow of reafon for believing, that the poet of
Shiraz had borrowed this dodrine from the Chrijlians ; but, as the caufe
of Chrijlianity could never be promoted by falfehood or errour, fo it
will n^er be obftrudled by candour and veracity; for the leiTons of
Confucius and Chanacya, of Sadi^ and Ha'fiz, are unknown
even at this day to millions of Chinefe and Hi?idus, Perjians and other
Mahommedans, who toil for their daily fupport ; nor, were they known
ever fo perfedlly, would they have a divine fan(ftion with the multitude;
fo that, in order to enlighten the minds of the ignorant, and to enforce
the obedience of the perverfe, it is evidently a priori, that a revealed
religion was neceflary in the great fyftem of providence : but my prin-
cipal motive for introducing this topick. was to give you a fpecimen
of that ancient oriental morality, which is comprifed in an infinite
number of Perjian, Arabick, and Sanfcrit compofitions.
Nearly one half oi jurifprudence is clofely conne(Sled with ethicks ; but,
fince the learned of AJia confider moft of their laws as pofitive and di-
vine inftitutions, and not as the mere conclufions of human reafon, and
fince I have prepared a mafs of extremely curious materials, which I
referve for an introdudlion to the digeft o? Indian laws, I proceed to the
fourth divifion, which confifls principally o^ fcicnce tranfcendcntly fo
named, or the knowledge of abJirnSl quantities, of their limits, properties^
VOL. I. B B (ind
170 ON THE PHILOSOPHY
and relations, imprefled on the underftanding with the force of irrefiftibic
demonjl ration, which, as all other knowledge depends at beft on our fal-
lible fenfes, and in great meafure on ftill more fallible teftimony, can
only be found, in pure mental abflradlions ; though for all the purpofes
of life, our own fenfes, and even the credible teftimony of others, give
us in moll: cafes the highefl degree of certainty, phyfical and moral.
IV. I HAVE already had occafion to touch on the Indian metaphy-
ficks of natural bodies according to the mofl; celebrated of the AJiatick
fchools, from which the Pythagoreans are fuppofed to have borrowed
many of their opinions; and, as we learn from Cicero, that the old
fages of Europe had an idea of centripetal force and a principle of ««/-
verfal gravitation (which they never indeed attempted to demonftrate),
fo I can venture to affirm, without meaning to pluck a leaf from the
neverfading laurels of our immortal Newton, that the whole of his
theology and part of his philofophy may be found in the Vedas and
even in the works of the Sufis : that tnojl fubtil fpirit, which he fuf-
pefted to pervade natural bodies, and, lying concealed in them, to caufe
attraction and repulfion, the emiffion, refledlion, and refradlion of light,
ele(flricity, calefadlion, fenfation, and mufcular motion, is defcribed by
the Hindus as a fifth element endued with thofe very powers ; and the
Vedas abound with allufions to a force univerfally attradlive, which they
chiefly afcribe to the Sun, thence called Aditya, or the AttraSior ; a
name defigned by the mythologifls to mean the child of the Goddefs
Aditi ; but the moft wonderful paffage on the theory of attraftion oc-
curs in the charming allegorical poem of Shi'ri'n and Ferha'd, or the
Divine Spirit and a human Soul difinterefledly pious ; a work which from
the firft verfe to the laft, is a blaze of religious and poetical fire. The
whole pafl!age appears to me fo curious, that I make no apology for
giving you a faithful tranflation of it: " There is a ftrong propenfity,
" which dances through every atom, and attrads the minuteft particle
" to
OF THE ASIATICKS. \J\
" to fome peculiar obje6l ; fearch this univerfe from its bafe to its fum-
" mit, from fire to air, from water to earth, from all below the Moon
" to all above the celeftial fpheres, and thou wilt not find a corpufcle
" deflitute of that natural attradlibility ; the very point of the firft
" thread, in this apparently tangled fkein, is no other than luch a prin-
" ciple of attradlion, and all principles befide are void of a real bafis ;
" from fuch a propenfity arifes every motion perceived in heavenly or
*' in terreftrial bodies ; it is a difpofition to be attracfted, which taught
" hard fteel to rufli from its place and rivet itfelf on the magnet ; it is
" the fame difpofition, which impels the light ilraw to attach itfelf
** firmly on amber ; it is this quality, which gives every fubflance in
" nature a tendency toward another, and an inclination forcibly directed
" to a determinate point." Thefe notions are vague, indeed, and un-
fatisfaftory ; but permit me to afk, whether the laft paragraph of New-
ton's incomparable work goes much farther, and whether any fubfe-
quent experiments have thrown light on a fubjedt fo abftrufe and ob-
fcure : that the fublime aftronomy and exquifitely beautiful geometry,
with which that work is illumined, fliould in any degree be approached
by the Mathematicians of ^Jia, while of all Europeans, who ever lived,
Archimedes alone was capable of emulating them, would be a vain
expe(5tation j but we mufl fufpend our opinion of Indian aftronomical
knowledge, till the Surya fiddhdnta fhall appear in our own language,
and even then (to adopt a phrafe of Cicero) our greedy and capacious
ears will by no means be fatisfied ; for in order to complete an Iiiftori-
cal account of genuine Hindu aftronomy, we require verbal tranflations
of at leaft three other Sanfcrit books; of the treatife by Parasara,
for the firfi: age of Indian fcience, of that by Vara'ha, with the co-
pious comment of his very learned fon, for the middle age, and of
thofe written by Bhascara, for times comparatively modern. The
valuable and now acceffible works of the lafl mentioned philofopher,
contain alfo an univerfal, or fpecious, arithmetick, with one chapter at
leaft
\J2 ON THE PHILOSOPHY
lead on geometry ; nor would it, furely, be difficult to procure, through
our feveral refidents with the PiJJnvd and with Scindhya, the older
books on algebra, which Bhascara mentions, and on which Mr.
Davis would juftly fet a very high value; but the Sanfcrit work, from
which we might expedl the mofl ample and important information, is
entitled CJIjetraderfa, or a View of Geometrical Knowledge, and was com-
piled in a very large volume by order of the illuftrious Jayasinha, com-
prifing all that remains on that fcience in the facred language oihidia: it
was infpedled in the weft by a Pandit now in the fervice of Lieutenant
WiLFORD, and might, I am perfuaded, be purchafed at Jayanagar, where
Colonel PoLiER had permiffion from the Rdjd to buy the four Vedas
themfelves. Thus have I anfwered, to the beft of my power, the three
iirft queftions obligingly tranfmitted to us by profefTor Playfair ;
whether the Hindus have books in Sanfcrit exprefsly on geometry, whe-
ther they have any fuch on arithmetick, and whether a tranflation of
the Suryafiddhdnta be not the great defideratum on the fubjedl of Indian
aftronomy : to his three laft queftions, whether an accurate fummary ac-
count of all the Sanfcrit works on that fubjedlr, a delineation of the In-
dian celeftial fphere, with corredt remarks on it, and a defcription of the
aftronomical inftruments ufed by the ancient Hindus, would not feverally
be of great utility, we cannot but anfwer in the affirmative, provided
that the utmoft critical fagacity were applied in diftinguiftiing fuch
works, conftellations, and inftruments, as are clearly of Indian origin,
from fuch as were introduced into this country by Mufelman aftronomers
from Tartary and Perfa, or in later days by Mathematicians from
Europe.
V. From all the properties of man and of nature, from all the various
branches of fcience, from all the dedu<ftions of human reafon, the ge-
neral corollary, admitted by Hindus, Arabs, and Tartars, by Perfans, and
by Chinefe, is the fupremacy of an all-creating and all-preferving fpirit,
infinitely
OF THE ASIATICKS. 1^3
infinitely wife, good, and powerful, but infinitely removed from the
comprehenfion of his moil exalted creatures ; nor are there in any lan-
guage (the ancient Hebrew always excepted) more pious and fublime
addreffes to the being of beings, more fplendid enumerations of his at-
tributes, or more beautiful defcriptions of his vifible works, than in
Arabicky Ferfian and Sanfcrit, efpecially in the Koran, the introduc-
tions to the poems of Sad i', Niza'm'i, and Firdaus'i, the four Vedas
and many parts of the numerous Puranas : but fupplication and praife
would not fatisfy the boundlefs imagination of the Vedanti and Sufi
theologifts, who blending uncertain metaphyficks with undoubted prin-
ciples of religion, have prefumed to reafon confidently on the very na-
ture and eflence of the divine fpirit, and afl'erted in a very remote age,
what multitudes of Hindus and Mufelmans aflert at this hour, that all
fpirit is homogeneous, that the fpirit of God is in kind the fame with
that of man, though differing from it infinitely in degree, and that, as
material fubftance is mere illufion, there exifts in this univerfe only one
generick fpiritual fubftance, the fole primary caufe, efficient, fubftantial
and formal of all fecondary caufes and of all appearances whatever, but
endued in its higheft degree, with a fublime providential wifdom, and
proceeding by ways incomprehenfible to the fpirits which emane from
it J an opinion, which Go tama never taught, and which we have no
authority to believe, but which, as it is grounded on the dodlrine of an
immaterial creator fupremely wife, and a conftant preferver fupremely
benevolent, differs as widely from the pantheifm of Spinoza and To-
land, as the affirmation of a propofition differs from the negation of it i
though the laft named profeffor of that iiifane philofophy had the bafe-
nefs to conceal his meaning under the very words of Saint Paul, which
are cited by Newton for a purpofe totally different, and has even ufed a
phrafe, which occurs, indeed, in the Veda, but in a fenfe diametrically
oppofite to that, which he would have given it. The paffage, to which I
allude, is in a fpeech of Yaruna to his fon, where he fays : " That
" fpirit,.
174 ON THE PHILOSOPHY, Cic
" fpirit, from which thefe created beings proceed ; through which
*' having proceeded from it, they hve ; toward which they tend and
" in which they are ultimately abforbed, that fpirit ftudy to know; that
" fpirit is the Great One."
The fubjecft of this difcourfe, gentlemen, is inexhaullible : it has been
my endeavour to fay as much on it as poffible in the feweft words ; and,
at the beginning of next year, I hope to clofe thefe general difquifitions
with topicks meafurelefs in extent, but lefs abftrufe than that, which has
this day been difculfed, and better adapted to the gaiety, which feems
to have prevailed in the learned banquets of the Greeks, and which
ought, furely, to prevail in every fympofiack aflembly.
A DIS-
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A DISSERTATION
ORTHOGRAPHY OF ASIATICK WORDS
IN ROMAN LETTERS.
The president.
JlLvERY man, who has occafion to compofe tradis on AJiatick Litera-
ture, or to tranflate from the Jlfiatick Languages, muft always find it
convenient, and fometimes neceffary, to exprefs Arabian., Indian, and
Perfian words, or fenrences, in the charadlers generally ufed among
Europeans ; and almofl every writer in thofe circumflances has a method
of notation peculiar to himfelf: but none has yet appeared in the form
of a complete fyflem ; fo that each original found may be rendered in-
variably by one appropriated fymbol, conformably to the natural order
of articulation, and with a due regard to the primitive power of the
Roman alphabet, which modern Europe has in general adopted. A
want of attention to this objed: has occafioned great confufion in
Hiftory and Geography. The ancient Greeks, who made a voluntary
facrifice of truth to the delicacy of their ears, appear to have altered by
defign almofl all the oriental names, which they introduced into their
elegant,
176 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
elegant, but romantick, Hiftories ; and even their more modern Geo-
graphers, who were too vain, perhaps, of their own language to learn
any other, have (o ftrangely difguifed the proper appellations of coun-
tries, cities, and rivers in j^Jm, that, without the guidance of the
fagacious and indefatigable M. D'Anville, it would have been as
troublefome to follow Alexander through the Punjab on the Ptole-
maick map of Agathod^mon, as adlually to travel over the fame
country in its prefent f!:ate of rudenefs and diforder. They had an un-
warrantable habit of moulding foreign names to a Grecian form, and
giving them a refemblance to fome derivative word in their own tongue :
thus, they changed the Gogra into Agoranis, or a 7-iver of the ajj'emhly,
XJchah into Oxydracce, or fl:>arpfighted, and Rerias into Aornos, or a rock
inaccejjible to birds ; whence their poets, who delighted in wonders, em-
bellilhed their works with new images, diftinguilhing regions and for-
treffes by properties, which exifted only in imagination. If we have
lefs livelinefs of fancy than the Ancients, we have more accuracy,
more love of truth, and, perhaps, more folidity of judgement ; and, if
our works fliall afford lefs delight to thofe, in refpe<fl of whom we
Ihall be Ancients, it may be faid without prefumption, that we fhall
give them more correcfl information on the Hiftory and Geography of
this eaftern world; fince no man can perfedlly defcribe a country, who
is unacquainted with the language of it. The learned and entertaining
work of M. D'Herbelot, which profefTes to interpret and elucidate
the names of perfons and places, and the titles of books, abounds alfo
in citations from the befb writers o( Arabia and Per/ia ; yet, though his
orthography will be found lefs defective than that of other writers on'
fimilar fubjedls, without excepting the illuftrious Prince Kantemir,
IHII it requires more than a moderate knowledge of Perfian, Arabick,
and Turkip, to comprehend all the paflages quoted by him in European
charaftersj one inftance of which I cannot forbear giving. In the
account of Ibnu Zaidlin, a celebrated Andahijian poet, tlie firfl: couplet
■ - of
OF ASIATICK WORDS. I77
of an elegy in Arabick is praifed for its elegance, and exprefled thus
in Roman letters :
lekad he'in tenagikom dhamairna;
lacdha alaina alafla laula taiUna.
*' The time, adds the tranflator, will foon come, when you will
** deliver us from all our cares : the remedy is aflured, provided we
'* have a little patience." When Dr. Hunt of Oxford, whom I am
bound to name with gratitude and veneration, together with two or
three others, attempted at my requeft to write the fame diftich in
Arabian characters, they all wrote it differently, and all, in my prefent
opinion, erroneoully. I was then a very young ftudent, and could
not eafily have procured Ibnu Zaidiins works, which are, no doubt,
preferved in the Bodley library, but which have not fince fallen in my
way. This admired couplet, therefore, I have never feen in the original
charadlers, and confefs myfelf at a lofs to render them with certainty.
Both verfes are written by D' Herbelot without attention to the gram-
matical points, that is, in a form which no learned Arab would give
them in recitation ; but, although the French verfion be palpably erro-
neous, it is by no means eafy to corredt the errour. If dldsa or a
remedy be the true reading, the negative particle muft be abfurd, fince
tadffaina fignifies we are patient, and not we defpair, but, if dldfay or
afflidlion be the proper word, fomc obfcurity muft arife from the verb,
with which it agrees. On the whole I guefs, that the diftich fhould
thus be written :
VOL. I. c c Tecddu
178 OF THE ORTHOGRAPHY
Tecadti hhina tiindjiaim d' e77iairuna
Takdl dlaina 'Idfay lau la tadfsina.
" When our bofoms impart their fecrets to you, anguifli would almofl
** fix our doom, if we were not mutually to confole ourfelves."
The principal verbs may have a future fenfe, and the kft word
may admit of a different interpretation. Dr. Hunt, I remember, had
found in Giggeius the word dhejndyer, which he conceived to be in
the original. After all, the rhyme feems imperfed:, and the meafure
irregular. Now I afk, whether fuch perplexities could have arifen, if
jyHerhelot or his Editor had formed a regular fyftem of expreffing
Arabkk in Roman charadlers, and had apprized his readers of it in his
introdudlory diflertation ?
If a further proof be required, that fuch a fyflem will be ufeful
to the learned and effential to the fludent, let me remark, that a
learner of Perjian, who fliould read in our beft hiflories the life of
Sultan AziM, and wifli to write his name in Arabkk letters, might ex-
prefs it thirty-nine different ways, and be wrong at laft : the word fhould
be written Adzem with three points on the firfl confonant.
There are two general modes of exhibiting Afiatick words in our
own letters : they are founded on principles nearly oppofite, but each of
them has its advantages, and each has been recommended by refpedtable
authorities. The firft profefTes to regard chiefly the pronunciation of the
words intended to be expreffed; and this method, as far as it can be
purfued, is unqueftionably ufeful : but new founds are very inadequately
prefented to a {^ni^ not formed to receive them ; and the reader mufl
in the end be left to pronounce many letters and fyllables precarioufly ;
befides, that by this mode of orthography all grammatical analogy is
deftroyed.
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 1 jg
dcftroyeJ, limple founds are reprefented by double charafters, vowels of
one denomination ftand for thofe of another -, and poffibly with all our
labour we perpetuate a provincial or inelegant pronunciation : all thefe
objeftions may be made to the ufual way of writing Kummerbiind, in
which neither the letters nor the true found of them are preferved,
while Kemerhend, or Cemerbend, as an ancient Briton would write it,
clearly exhibits both the original characters and the Perfian pronun-
ciation of them. To fet this point in a flrong light, we need only fup-
pofe, that the French had adopted a fyftem of letters wholly different
from ours, and of which we had no types in our printing-houfes : let us
conceive an 'EngUJI:>man acquainted with their language to be pleafed
with Malherbe's well-known imitation of Horace, and defirous of
quoting it in fome piece of criticifm. He would read thus :
* La mort a des rigueurs a nulle autre pareilles ;
* On a beau la prier :
* La cruelle qu'elle eft fe bouche les oreilles,
* Et nous laiiTe crier.
* Le pauvre en fa cabane, cu le chaume le couvre,
* Eft fujet a fes loix,
* Et la garde, qui veille aux barrieres du Louvre,
* N'en defend pas nos rois !'
Would he then exprefs thefe eight verfes, in Roman chara<fters, ex-
adly as the French themfelves in fad: exprefs them, or would he de-
corate his compofition with a paflage more refembling the dialed of
favages, than that of a poliflied nation? His pronunciation, good or bad,
would, perhaps, be thus reprefented :
Law
180 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
* Law more aw day reegyewrs aw nool otruh parellyuh,
' Onne aw bo law preeay :
* Law crooellyuh kellay fuh boofhuh lays orellyuh,
* Ay noo layfuh creeay.
' Luh povre ong faw cawbawn oo luh chomuh luh coovruh,
' Ay foozyet aw fay Iwaw,
* Ay law gawrduh kee velly 6 bawryayruh dyoo Loovriih
' Nong dayfong paw no rwaw !'
The fecond fyftem of Afiatick Orthography confifts in fcrupuloufly
rendering letter for letter, without any particular care to preferve the
pronunciation ; and, as long as this mode proceeds by unvaried rules, it
feems clearly entitled to preference.
For the firft method of writing Perjian words the warmeft advocate,
among my acquaintance, was the late Major Davy, a Member of our
Society, and a man of parts, vv^hom the world loft prematurely at a time,
when he was meditating a literary retirement, and hoping to pafs the
remainder of his life in domeftick happinefs, and in the cultivation of
his very ufeful talents. He valued himfelf particularly on his pronun-
ciation of the Perjian language, and on his new way of exhibiting it
in our charadlers, which he inftrufted the learned and amiable Editor
of his Injiitutes of Timour at Oxford to retain with minute attention
throughout his work. Where he had acquired his refined articulation
of the Perfian, I never was informed j but it is evident, that he fpells
moft proper names in a manner, which a native of Perfia, who could
read our letters, would be unable to comprehend. For inftance : that
the capital of Azarbdijan is now called Tabriz, I know from the mouth
of a perfon born in that city, as well as from other Iranians ; and that
it was fo called fixteen hundred years ago, we all know from the Geo-
graphy
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 181
graphy oi Ptolemy, yet Major Davy always wrote it Tubburaze, and
inilfted that it (hould thus be pronounced. Whether the natives of Se^
merkand, or Samarkand, who probably fpeak the dialeft of Soghd with
a 'Turanian pronunciation, call their birthplace, as Davy fpelled it,
Summurkund, I have yet to learn ; but I cannot believe it, and am con-
vinced, that the former mode of writing the word exprefles both the
letters and the found of them better than any other combination of cha-
radiers. His method, therefore, has every defedt ; fince it renders nei-
ther the original elements of words, nor the founds reprefented by them
in Perjia, where alone we muft feek for genuine Ferftan, as for French
in France, and for Italian in Italy.
The fecond method has found two able fupporters in Mr. Halhed
and Mr. Wilkins; to the firfl of whom the publick is indebted for a
perfpicuous and ample grammar of the Bengal language, and to the fe-
cond for more advantages in Indian literature than Europe, or India, can
ever fufficiently acknowledge.
Mr. Halhed, having juftly remarked, ' that the two greateft de-
* fed:s in the orthography of any language are the application of the
' fame letter to feveral different founds, and of different letters to the
* fame found,' truly pronounces them both to be * fo common in
* Englijh, that he was exceedingly embarraffed in the choice of letters
* to exprefs the found of the Bengal vowels, and was at lafl by no
' means fatisfied with his own feleftion.' If any thing diffatisfies me,
in his clear and accurate fyftem, it is the ufe of double letters for the
long vowels (which might however be juftified) and the frequent inter-
mixture oi It a lick with Roman letters in the fame word ; which both in
writing and printing muft be very inconvenient : perhaps it may be
added, that his diphthongs are not expreffed analogoully to the founds,
of which they are compofed.
The
182 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
The fyftem of Mr, Wilkins has been equally well confidered, and
Mr. Halhed himfelf has indeed adopted it in his preface to the Com-
pilation of Hindu Laws : it principally confifts of double letters to fignify
our third and fifth vowels, and of the common profodial marks to afcer-
tain their brevity or their length ; but thofe marks are fo generally ap-
propriated to books of profody, that they never fail to convey an idea
of metre ; nor, if either profodial fign were adopted, would both be ne-
ceflary ; fince the omiffion of a long mark would evidently denote the
fliortnefs of the unmarked vowel, or converfely. On the whole, I can-
not but approve this notation for Sanfcrit words, yet require fomething
more univerfally expreflive of Afiatick letters : as it is perfedt, however,
in its kind, and will appear in the works of its learned inventor, I iliall
annex, among the examples, four diftichs from the Bhdgaivat exprefled
both in his method and mine * : a tranflation of them will be produced
on another occafion ; but, in order to render this tradt as complete as
poffible, a fuller fpecimen of jS^^/trr// will be fubjoined with the original
printed in the charafters oi Bejigal, into which the Brdhmans of that
province tranfpofe all their books, few of them being able to read the
Devandgari letters : fo far has their indolence prevailed over their
piety !
Let me now proceed, not prefcribing rules for others, but explaining
thofe which I have prefcribed for myfelf, to unfold my own fyftem, the
convenience of which has been proved by careful obfervation and long
experience.
It would be fuperfluous to difcourfe on the organs of fpeech, which
have been a thoufand times difledled, and as often defcribed by mufi-
cians or anatomifts ; and the feveral powers of which every man may
perceive either by the touch or by fight, if he will attentively obferve
» Plate IV,
another
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 183
another perfon pronouncing the different clafies of letters, or pronounce
them himfelf dillincftly before a mirror : but a Oiort analyfis of articulate
founds may be proper to introduce an examination of every feparate
fymbol.
All things abound with erroiir, as the old fearchers for truth remarked
with defpondence ; but it is really deplorable, that our firfl ftep from
total ignorance flTiould be into grofs inaccuracy, and that we fliould be-
gin our education in England with learning to read the Jive vowels, two
of which, as we are taught to pronounce them, are clearly diphthongs.
There are, indeed, five fimple vocal founds in our language, as in that
of Rome; which occur in the words an innocent bull, though not pre-
cifely in their natural order, for we have retained the true arrangement
of the letters, while we capricioufly difarrange them in pronunciation ;
fo that our eyes are fatisfied, and our ears difappointed. The primary
elements of articulation are \k\&fojt and hard breathings, th&fpiritus lenis
2.x\A.fpiritus a/per of the Latin Grammarians. If the lips be opened ever
fo little, the breath fuffered gently to pafs through them, and the feebleft
utterance attempted, a found is formed of fo fimple a nature, that, when
lengthened, it continues nearly the fame, except that, by the lead
acutenefs in the voice it becomes a cry, and is probably the firfb found
uttered by infants ; but if, while this element is articulated, the breath
be forced with an effort through the lips, we form an a/pirate more or
lefs harfh in proportion to the force exerted. When, in pronouncing
the fimple vowel, we open our lips wider, we exprefs a found completely
articulated, which moft nations have agreed to place the Jirji in their
fymbolical fyfliems : by opening them wider flill with the corners of
them a little drawn back, we give birth to the Jecond of the RomoJi
vowels, and by a large aperture, with a farther inflexion of the lips and
a higherelevation of the tongue, we utter the third of them. By purfing
up our lips in the leafl degree, we convert the fimple element into an-
other
1 84 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
other found of the fame nature with the firfi vowel, and eafily con-
founded with it in a broad pronunciation : when this new found is
lengthened, it approaches very nearly to xht fourth vowel, which we
form by a bolder and flronger rotundity of the mouth ; a farther con-
traiflion of it produces the ffth vowel, which in its elongation almoft
clofes the lips, a fmall paffage only being left for the breath. Thefe arc
all fhort vowels ; and, if an Italian were to read the words an innocent
hull, he would give the found of each correfponding long vowel, as in
the monofyllables of his own language, Ja, f, jo, fe, Ju. Between thefc
ten vowels are numberlefs gradations, and nice inflexions, which ufe
only can teach ; and, by the compofition of them all, might be formed
an hundred diphthongs, and a thoufand triphthongs ; many of which
are found in Italian, and were probably articulated by the Greeks; but
we have only occafion, in this tradt, for two diphthongs, which are
compounded of thejirjl vowel with the third, and with the Jifth, and
ihould be exprelTed by their conftituent letters : as to thofe vocal com-
pounds which begin with the third and Jifth fhort vowels, they are ge-
nerally and not inconveniently rendered by diftindl charadlers, which
are improperly ranged among the confonants. The tongue, which
affifts in forming fome of the vowels, is the principal inftrument in arti-
culating two liquid founds, which have fomething of a vocal nature ;
one, by ftriking the roots of the upper teeth, while the breath pafTes
gently through the lips, another, by an inflexion upwards with a tre-
mulous motion ; and thefe two liquids coalefce with fuch eafe, that a
mixed letter, ufed in fome languages, may be formed by the firil of them
followed by the fecond : when the breath is obftrudled by the prefliirc
of the tongue, and forced between the teeth on each fide of it, a liquid
is formed peculiar to the Britifi dialeft of the Celtick.
We may now confider in the fame order, beginning with the root of
the tongue and ending with the perfedt clofe of the lips, thofe lefs
mufical
OF ASIATICK WORDS. jq
ly
mufical founds, which require the aid of a vowe/, or at Icaft of thtjimple
breathing, to be fully articulated; and it may here be premifed, that the
harjl:) breathing diflincflly pronounced after each of thefe confotjants, as
they are named by grammarians, conftitutes its proper a/pirate.
By the affiftance of the tongue and the palate are produced two con-
genial founds, differing only as hard 2sA foft ; and thefe two may be
formed flill deeper in the throat, fo as to imitate, with a long vowel
after them, the voice of a raven; but if, while they are uttered, the
breath be harfhly protruded, two analogous articulations are heard, the
fecond of which feems to charadlerize the pronunciation of the Arabs ;
while the nafal found, very common among the Perfians and Indians,
may be confidered as the /of t palatine with part of the breath paffing
through the nofe ; which organ would by itfelf rather produce a vocal
found, common alfo in Arabia, and not unlike the cry of a young ante-
lope and fome other quadrupeds.
Next come different clafles of dentals, and among the firfl: of them
fhould be placed thefibilants, which moft nations exprefs by an indented
figure : each of the dental founds is hard or foft, fliarp or obtufe, and,
by thrufting the tip of the tongue between the teeth, we form two
founds exceedingly common in Arabick and EngliJJ:, but changed into
lifping fibilants by the Perjians and French, while they on the other hand
have a found unknown to the Arabs, and uncommon in our language,
though it occurs in fome words by the compofition of the hard fibilant
with our laft vowel pronounced as a diphthong. The liquid nafal fol-
lows thefe, being formed by the tongue and roots of the teeth, with a
little affiftance from the other organ ; and we muft particularly remem-
ber, when we attend to the pronunciation of Indian dialedls, that mofl
founds of this clafs are varied in a Angular manner by turning the tongue
VOL. I. D D upwards.
186 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
upwards, and almofl bending it back towards the palate, fo as to exclude
them nearly from the order, but not from the analogy, of dentals.
The labials form the laft feries, moft of which are pronounced by the
appulfe of the lips on each other or on the teeth, and one of them by
their perfedl clofe : the letters, by which they are denoted, reprefent in
moft alphabets the curvature of one lip or of both ; and a natural cha-
raEler for all articulate founds might eafily be agreed on, if nations
would agree on any thing generally beneficial, by delineating the feveral
organs of fpeech in the a<fl of articulation, and feledling from each a
diftinft and elegant outline. A perfedl language would be that, in
which every idea, capable of entering the human mind, might be neatly
and emphatically expreffed by one fpecificlc word, fimple if the idea
were iimple, complex, if complex ; and on the fame principle a perfedl
iyftem of letters ought to contain one fpecifick fymbol for every found
ufed in pronouncing the language to which they belonged: in this re-
fpedt the old Perjian or Zefid approaches to perfeiftion ; but the Arabian
alphabet, which all Mohammedan nations have inconfiderately adopted,
appears to me fo complete for the purpofe of writing Arabick, that not
a letter could be added or taken away without manifeft inconvenience,
and the fame m.ay indubitably be faid of the Devandgari fyftem j which,
as it is more naturally arranged than any other, fhall here be the ftand-
ard of my particular obfervations on Afiatick letters. Our EngUJh al-
phabet and orthography are difgracefully and almoft ridiculoufly imper-
feifl ; and it would be impoflible to exprefs either Indian, Perfian, or
Arabian words in Roman charadters, as we are abfurdly taught to pro-
nounce them ; but a mixture of new charadlers would be inconvenient,
and by the help of the diacritical marks ufed by the French, with a few
of thofe adopted in our own treatifes onJJuxions, we may apply our pre-
fent alphabet fo happily to the notation of all Afiatick languages, as to
equal
^ ^ % % %1 %1 ^ ^'^
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 187
equal the Dc'varidgart itfelf in precifion and clearnefs, and fo regularly
that any one, who knew the original letters, might rapidly and unerr-
ingly tranfpofe into them all the proper names, appellatives, or cited
paflages, occurring in trafts of Afiatkk literature.
This is the iimpleil element of articulation, or firft vocal found, con-
cerning which enough has been faid : the word America begins and ends
with it ; and its proper fymbol therefore is A ; though it may be often
very conveniently exprefled by E, for reafons, which I fliall prefently
offer. In our own anomalous language we commonly mark this ele-
mentary found by ovlk fifth vowel, but fometimes exprefs it by a llrange
variety both of vowels and diphthongs ; as in the phrafe, a mother bird
flutters over her young \ an irregularity, which no regard to the deriva-
tion of words or to blind cuftom can in any degree juflify. The Nc'igart
letter is called Acar, but is pronounced in Bengal like our fourth fliort
vowel, and in the wefl oi India, like our firfi : in all the dialedls properly
Indian it is confidered as inherent in every confonant ; and is placed laft
in the fyftem of the Tibetiansy becaufe the letters, which include it, are
firft explained in their fchools. If our double confonants were inva-
riably connecfted, as in Sanfcrit, it would certainly be the better way to
omit the iimple element, except when it begins a word. This letter
anfvvers to the fat-hhah, or open found of the Arabs, and, in fome few
words, to the Zeber of the Perfmns, or an acute accent placed above the
letter ; but this Arabian mark, which was fupplied in the Pahlavi by a
diftin<5t charadler, is more frequently pronounced at Isfahan either like
our firft or our fecond fliort vowel, as in chaJJ?m ^ndferzend, and the di-
ftinftion feems to depend, in general, on the nature of the confonant,
which follows it. Two of our letters, therefore, are neceilary for the
complete
188 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
complete notation of the acar and zeber ; and thus we may be able oc-
cafionally to avoid ridiculous or oifenfive equivocations in writing Orien-
tal words, and to preferve the true pronunciation of the Perjiafis, which
differs as widely from that of the Munhnans in India, as the language
of our Court at St. James's differs from that of the ruflicks in the Gentle
Shepherd.
When thcjirj} vowel, as the Pefjians pronounce it in the word bakht,
is doubled or prolonged as in bakht, it has the found of the fecond Nd-
gart vowel, and of the firft Arab'tck letter, that is, of our long vowel
in cajl J but the Arabs deride the Perfians for their broad pronunciation
of this letter, which in Iran has always the found of our vowel in call,
and is often fo prolated, as to refemble the fourth and even the Jifth of
our long vowels. Its natural mark would be the fhort A doubled; but
an acute accent in the middle of words, or a grave at the end of them,
will be equally clear, and conformable to the pradlice of poliflied na-
tions on the continent of Europe. The very broad found of the Arabian
letter, which they call extended, and which the Perfians extend yet
more, as in the word asan, may aptly enough be reprefented by the
profodial fign, fmce it is conftantly long ; whereas the mark hamzah as
con(k.int\Y fkortens the letter, and gives it the found of the point above,
or below, it ; as in the words osiil and IJldm : the changes of this letter
may perplex the learner, but his perplexity will foon vanifli, as he ad-
vances. In writing Afiatick names, we frequently confound the broad
a with its correfpondent fhort vowel, which we improperly exprefs by
an O } thus we write CoJJitn for Kaftm in defiance of analogy and cor-
red:nefs. Our vowel infond occurs but feldom, if ever, in Arabian,
Indian, or Perfan words : it is placed, neverthelefs, in the general
fyll:em with the fhort profodial mark, and ftands at the head of the
vowels, becaufe it is in truth only a variation of the fimple breathing.
Our
/(>/J /'(I jfllK
/'/,,/r ///
i
6
•
0
J
r
d
I)
i
L
I
y
b
J-
r
a.
a
^
^
^
ji
^
^
b^'in U^ ^ d d
c> »€ £
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 18Q
Our t/jt'rJ vowel, correftly pronounced, appears next in the Ndgari
fyftem ; for our fecond jfhort vowel has no place in it. This vocal
found is rcprefented in Arabick by an accute accent under the letter j
which at Mecca has almoft invariably the fame pronunciation; but,
fince, in the Zend, a charader like the Greek E-pfilon reprefents both
our fecond and third fhort vowels, the Perjians often pronounce ztr
like zeber, calling this country Hendy and the natives of it Hendus :
neverthelefs it will be proper to denote the Sanfcrit tear, and the jlra~
bian cafr by one unaltered fymbol ; as in the words Indra and Imam.
The third vowtl produced or lengthened is, for the reafon before fug-
gefted, beft marked by an accent either acute or grave, as in Italian :
Se cerca, fe dice ;
L'amico dov'e ?
L'amico infelice,
Rifpondi, morl !
Ah ! no ; si gran duolo
Non darle per me.
Rifpondi, ma folo :
Piangendo parti.
It was once my pradlice to reprefent this long vowel by two marks,
as in the words Lebeid and Deiwan, to denote the point in Arabick as
well as the letter above it -, but my prefent opinion is, that Lebid and
Diwan are more conformable to analogy, and to the Italian orthography,
which of all European fyflems approaches neareft to perfedion.
This
1 go ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
This is our ffth vowel ; for our fourth fhort one is, like our fccojidy
rejeSed from the pure pronunciation of the Sanfcrit in the weft: of
India and at Bdnaras, though the Bengakfe retain it in the iirft Nagari
letter, which they call ocar : to the notation of this found, our vowel in
full and the Perfian in gul fliould be ■conft;antly appropriated, fince it is
a fimple articulation, and cannot without impropriety be reprefented by
a double letter. It anfwers to hu-pfilon, and, hlce that, is often con-
founded with iota : thus miiJJ:c has the found of fni/Jjc among the modern
P erf am, as Nuniphaw^s pronounced Nympha by the Romans. The datnm
of the Arabs is, however, frequently founded, efpecially in Perfa, like
our fl:iort O in memory, and the choice of two marks for a variable lound
is not improper in itfelf, and will fometimes be found very convenient.
The fame lengthened, and properly exprefled by an accent, as in the
word virtu. : it is a very long vowel in Perfian, fo as nearly to treble
the quantity of its correfpondent ftiort one ; and this, indeed, may be
obferved of all the long vowels in the genuine Isfahdni pronunciation ;
but the letter "vdii is often redundant, fo as not to alter the found of the
fhort vowel preceding it ; as in khofh and khod: it may, neverthelefs, be
right to exprefs that letter by an accent.
A vocal found peculiar to the Sanfcrit language: it is formed by a
gentle vibration of the tongue preceding our third vowel pronounced
'very Jhort, and may be well exprefled by the profodial mark, as in
Rtfi, a Saint. When it is conneded with a confonant, as in Crtjhna,
JJO
OF ASIATICK WORDS. igi
no part of it Is ufed but the curve at the bottom. We have a fimilar
found in the word merrily, the fecond fyllable of which is much fhorter
than the firil fyllable of riches^
f
The fame complex found confiderably lengthened j and, therefore,
diftinguifliable by the profodial fign of a long voweL
In Bengal, where the ra is often funk, in the pronunciation of com-
pound fyllables, this letter expreffes both fyllables of our word lily;
but its genuine found, I believe, is /r/, a ftiort triphthong peculiar to
the Sanfcrit language.
Whatever be the true pronunciation of the former fymbol, this is
only an elongation of it, and may, therefore, be diftinguifhed by the
meti'ical fign of a long voweL
Our fecofjd long vowel, beft reprefented, like the others, by an
accent, as in Veda, the facred book of the Hindus, which is a de-
rivative from the Sanfcrit root i^id, to know. The notation, which I
recommend, will have this important advantage, that learned foreigners
in Europe will in general pronounce the oriental words, expreffed by
it, with as much corredinefs and facility as our own nation.
TJiis
1Q2 :?'■ ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
This is a diphthong compofed of ovx Jirjl and /,6/r^/ vowels, and
expreflible, therefore, by them, as in the word Vaidya, derived from
Veduy and meaning a man of the medical c aft : in Befigal it is pronounced
as the Greek diphthong in poimen, a fhepherd, v^'as probably founded in
ancient Greece. The Arabs and the Engli/Ij articulate this compofition
cxadlly alike, though we are pleafed to exprefs it by a fimple letter,
which, on the continent of Europe, has it genuine found. In the
mouth of an Italian the conftituent vowels in the words mai and miei do
not perfedtly coalefce, and, at the clofe of a verfe, they are feparated ;
but a Frenchman and a Perjtan would pronounce them nearly like the
preceding long vowel ; as in the word Mai, which at Paris means our
month of the fame name, and at Isfahan fignifies ivine : the Perjian
word, indeed, might with great propriety be written mei, as the diph-
thong feems rather to be compofed of ouvfecond and third Ihort vowels ;
a compofition very common in Italian poetry.
Though a coalition of acar and ucar forms this found in Sanfcrit^
as in the myftical word om, yet it is in fa(51: a fimple articulation, and
t\\t fourth of our long vowels.
Here, indeed, we meet with a proper diphthong, compounded of our
frji znAffth vowels ; and in Perfia the conftituent founds are not per-
fedlly united; as in the word Firdauft, which an Italian would pro-
nounce exaftly like a native of Isfahan. Perhaps, in Arabick words, it
•may be proper to reprefent by an accent the letters ya and ivdw, which,
preceded
OF ASIATICK WORDS. IQ3
preceded by the opoi vowel, form the refpedlive diphthongs in Zohdir
and Jauberi ; but the omiflion of this accent would occafion little in-
convenience.
This is no vowel, but an abbreviation, at the end of a fyllable, of
the nafal confonants : thus the Portuguefe write Siao for Siam with a
nafal termination; and the accurate M. D'Anville expreffes great
unwillingnefs to write Siam for the country, and Siamois for the people
of it, yet acknowledges his fear of innovating, * notwithflanding his
* attachment to the original and proper denominations of countries and
* places.' It appears to me, that the addition of a diftindl letter ga
would be an improper and inconvenient mode of expreffing the nafal
found, and that we cannot do better than adopt the Indian method of
diftinguifliing it, in Sanfcrit, Chinefe, and Perjian words, by a point
above the letter ; as in Sinha, a lion, CdnJiiy the name of an illuflrious
Emperor, and Sdmdn, a houfehold.
^
This too is an abbreviation or fubilitute, at the clofe of a fyllable, for
t\veJiro}ig af pirate, and may be diftinguillied in the middle of a word
by a hyphen, as in dub-c'ha, pain, though it feems often to refemble
the Arabian ha, which gives only a more forcible found to the vowel,
which precedes it, as in hhicmah, fcience. It is well known, that,
when {\.\c)\ Arabick words are ufed in conflrudlion, t\\c fnal afpirate
of the firft noun has the found of td ; but, as the letter remains un-
altered, it (hould, I think, be preferved in our characters, and exprefled
either by two points above it, as in Arabick, or by an accentual mark ;
VOL. I. E E fince
104 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
fince if we write Zuhdahu limilc, or, the Flower of the Realm, with a
comma to denote the fuppreffion of the alif, every learner will know,
that the firfl: word fliould be pronounced Zubdat. The ha is often
omitted by us, when we write Perfian in EngUJlj letters, but ought
invariably to be inferted, as in Shdhndmah ; fince the afpiration is very
perceptibly founded in the true pronunciation of dergdh, rubdh, and
other fimilar words. The Sanfcrit charad:er before us has the Angular
property of being interchangeable, by certain rules, both with ra, and
fa ; in the fame manner as the Sylva of the Romans was formed from
the Molick word hylva, and as arbos was ufed in old Latin for arbor.
We come now to the firft proper confonant of the Indian fyflem, in
which a feries of letters, formed in the throat near the root of the
tongue, properly takes the lead. This letter has the found of our k
and c in the words king and cannibal ; but there will be great conve-
nience in exprefTing it uniformly by the fecond of thofe marks, what-
ever be the vowel following it. The Arabs, and perhaps all nations
defcended from Sem, have a remarkable letter founded near the palate
with a hard prefTure, not unlike the cawing of a raven, as in the word
Kdfim ; and for this particular found the redundance of our own
alphabet fupplies us with an ufeful fymbol : the common people in
Hhtjdz and Egypt confound it, indeed, with the firft letter of Gabr,
and the Ferfians only add to that letter the hard palatine found of the
Arabian kdf; but, if we diilinguifla it invariably by k, we fhall find
the utility of appropriating our c to the notation of the Indian letter
now before us. The third letter of the Roman alphabet was probably
articulated like the kappa of the Greeks; and we may fairly fuppofe,
that Cicero and Cithara were pronounced alike at Rome and at AtheJis :
the
OF ASIATICK V/ORDS. lg5
the Weljh apply this letter uniformly to the fame found, as in cae and
cefn ; and a little pradice will render fuch words as cita^ and cinnara
familiar to our eyes.
We hear much of afpirated letters ; but the only proper a/pirates
(thofe I mean, in which a ftrong breathing is diftindlly heard after the
confonants) are to be found in the languages of India ; unlefs the word
cachexy, which our medical writers have borrowed from the Greek, be
thought an exception to the rule : this afpiration may be diftinguifhed
by a comma, as the letter before us is expreffed in the word chanitra, a
fpade. The Arabian, Perfian, and Tiifcan afpirate, which is formed by
a harfh protrufion of the breath, while the confonant is roughly arti-
culated near the root of the tongue, may be written as in the word
makhzen, a treafury.
Whatever vowel follow this letter, it ihould conflantly be exprefTed
as in the words gul, a flower, and gil, clay ; and we may obferve, as
before, that a little ufe will reconcile us to this deviation from our irre-
gular fyftem. The Germaiis, whofe pronunciation appears to be more
confident than our own, would fcarce underftand the hatin name of
their own country, if an Englijhman were to pronounce it, as he was
taught at fchool.
The proper afpirate of the laft letter, as in the word Rag' huvanfa :
the Perjians and Arabs pronounce their ghain with a bur in the throat,
and
igO ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
and a tremulous motion of the tongue, which gives it a found refembling
that of r, as it is pronounced in Northumberland \ but it is in truth a
compound guttural, though frequently exprefTed by a fimple letter, as
in Gaza, which fliould be written Ghazzab, a city of Palejline, and in
gazelle, as the French naturalifts call the ghazal, or antelope, of the
Arabians. The Perjian word migh, a cloud, is meg' ha in Sanjcrit; as
mtJJj, a fheep, appears alfo to be derived from mejha, by that change of
the long vowels, which generally diftinguiflies the Iranian from ih.Q Indian
pronunciation.
This is the nafal palatine, which I have already propofed to denote
by a point above the letter n ; fince the addition of a ^ would create
confufion, and often fuggefl the idea of a different fyllable. Thus ends
the firft feries of Ndgar} letters, confifting of the hard Sind/oft guttural,
each attended by its proper afpirate, and followed by a f?a/al of the fame
clafs; which elegant arrangement is continued, as far as poflible, through
the Sanjcrit fyftem, and feems conformable to the beautiful analogy of
nature.
The next is a feries of compound letters, as mofl grammarians confider
them, though fome hold them to be fimple founds articulated near the
palate. The firll: of them has no diftindl fign in our own alphabet, but
is exprefled, as in the word Chi/za, by two letters, which are certainly
not its component principles : it might, perhaps, be more properly de-
noted, as it is in the great work of M. D' Herbelot, by t/b ; but the
inconvenience of retaining our own fymbol will be lefs than that of in-
troducing a new combination, or inventing, after the example of Dr.
Franklin,
OF ASIATICK WORDS. ig;
Franklin, a new charafter. China is a Sanfcrit word ; and it will be
convenient fo to write it, though I feel an inclination to exprefs it other-
wife.
The fame compofition with a llrong breathing articulated after it.
Harlh as it may feem, we cannot, if we continue the former fymbol,
avoid expreffing this found, as in the word ch'hajidasy metre.
This too feems to have been confidered by the Hindus as a flmple
palatine, but appears in truth to be the complex expreffion of dzh : per-
haps the fame letter may, by a fmall difference of articulation, partake
of two different founds. This at leaft we may obferve, that the letter
under confideration is confounded, as a fimple found, with _)'<?, and, as a
compound, with za, one of its conffituents: thus the ydf mm oi Arabia
is by us called yVz/w/w, while the fame man is Giorgi at Rome and Zorzi
at Venice ; or (to give an example of both in a fingle word) yug, or
junBion, at Bdnares, is Jug in Bengal, and was pronounced zug, or, in
the nominative, ziigon at Athens. We fliould, however, invariably ex-
prefs the letter before us hy ja.
The Arabian letters d'hald', d'ad, and d'ha are all pronounced in Perjia
like za, with a fort of lifp from an attempt to give them their genuine
found: they may be well expreffed as in fluxionary charaders, by a feries
of points above them, Z) z, z.
The preceding letter afpirated, as in the word J'haJI^a, a iifh..
This
igS ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
:5
This is the Jecond nafal compofed of the former and the letter ya. As
the Italian word agnello and our onion contain a compofition of n and y,
they fliould regularly be written anyello and onyon; and the Indian found
differs only in the greater nafality of the firft letter, which may be dif-
tinguifhed, as before, by a point. A very ufeful Sanfcrit root, fignify-
ing to know, begins with the letter y^ followed by this compound nafal,
and fhould be written jny a ; whence j?2yana, knowledge; but this harih
combination is in Bengal foftened into gya : it is expreffed by a diilindt
charadler, which ftands laft in the plate annexed *.
In the curious work entitled Tohfahul Hind, or The Prefent of India,
this is the Jburt/j feries of Sanfcrit letters ; but in general it has the third
rank, more agreeably, I think, to the analogy of the fyftem. This clafs
is pronounced with au inflexion of the tongue towards the roof of the
mouth, which gives an obtufe found to the confonant, and may be dif-
tinguifhed by an accent above it. The firft is the Indian t'a, as in the
word cot'ara, a rotten tree, and is commonly expreffed in Perfian writ-
ings h-^ four points, but would be better marked by the Arabian ta,
which it very nearly refembles.
The fame with a flrong breathing after it, as in Vaicunfha, or im-
-ivearied, an epithet of Vi/lmic.
* Plate II.
A remark-
OF ASIATICK WORDS. IQQ
A remarkable letter, which the Mujlimaris call the Indian dal ; and
exprefs alfo by four points over it ; but it fhould, by analogy to the
others, be diftinguiflied by an accentual mark as in the word dan'day
punifhment. When the tongue is inverted with a flight vibratory mo-
tion, this letter has a mixture of the ra, with which it is often, but in-
corredly, confounded ; as in the common word ber for bera, great. It
refembles the Arabian dad.
The preceding letter afpirated, as in D'hdca, improperly pronounced
Dacca. In the fame manner may be written the. Arabian d hdy but
without the comma, fmce its afpirate is lefs diftindlly heard than in the
Indian found.
This is the nafal of the third feries, and formed by a fimilar inverfion
of the tongue : in Sanfcrit words it ufually follows the letters ra and Jha
(as in Brahmen a, derived from Brahman , the Supreme Being ; Viflmut
a name of his preferving power) ; or precedes the other letters of the
third clafs.
Here begins xhc fourth feries, on which we have little more to re-
mark. The hrft letter of this clafs is the common ta, or hard dental,
if it may not rather be confidered as a lingual.
Its
200 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
Its afpirate, which ought to be written with a comma, as in the
word Afwatt'ha, the Indian fig-tree, left it be confounded by our
countrymen with the Arabian found in thurayya, the Pleiads, which is
precifely the Englip afpiration in think ; a found, which the Perjians
and French cannot eafily articulate : in Perfian it fhould be expreffed
by s with a point above it.
The/oft dental in Devata, or Deity.
The fame afpirated as in D'herma, juftice, virtue, or piety. We
muft alfo diftinguifh this letter by a comma from the Arabian in
dhahab, gold ; a found of difincult articulation in France and Perfia,
which we write thus very improperly, inftead of retaining the genuine
Anglofaxon letter, or expreffing it, as we might with great conve-
nience, dhus.
The fimple nafal, founded by the teeth with a little affiftance from
the noftrils, but not fo much as in many French and Perfian words.
Both this nafal and the former occur in the name Ndrdyen'a, or
dwelling in water.
Next come the labials in the fame order; and firft the hard labial
pa, formed by a ftrong comprefTion of the lips ; which fo ill fuits the
configuration
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 201
configuration of an Arabian mouth, that it cannot be articulated by an
Arab without much effort.
The proper afpirate of pa, as in the word JJjepherd, but often pro-
nounced like onr fa, as infela, inftead oi p'hela, fruit. In truth the^^
is a diftindl letter ; and our pha, which in EngliJJj is redundant, iliould
-be appropriated to the notation of this Indian labial.
TheyS/? labial in Budd'ha, wife, and the fecond letter in mofl alpha-
bets ufed by Europeans ; which begin with a vowel, a labial, a pala-
tine, and a lingual : it ought ever to be diftinguifhed in Ndgari by a
tranfverfe bar, though the copyifts often omit this ufeful diilindion.
The Indian afpirate of the preceding letter, as in the word bhdJJjd,
or ^.fpoken dialedt. No comma is neceffary in this notation, fince the
found oi bha cannot be confounded with any in our own language.
This is the laft nafal, as in Me}iii, one of the iirlt created beings
according to the Indians: it is formed by clofing the lips entirely,
whilll the breath paffes gently through the nofe; and here ends the re-
gular arrangement of the Ndgari letters. Another feries might have
been added, namely, fa,Jka, za, zha, which are in the fame proportion
as ta, tha, da, dha, and the reft ; but the two lafl: founds are not ufed
in Sanfcrit.
VOL. I. F F Then
202 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
Then follows a fet of letters approaching to the nature of vowels :
the firft of them feenis in truth to be no more than our third fliort
vowel beginning a diphthong, and may, therefore, be thought a fuper-
fluous chara(fler : lince this union, however, produces a kind of con-
fonant articulated near the palate, it is ranked by many among the con-
fonants, and often confounded with ja : hence Yanmna, a facred river
in India, called alfo the Daughter of the Siiriy is written 'Romanes by the
Greeks, and Jumna, lefs properly, by the EngliJJj.
The two liquids na and ma, one of which is a lingual and the
other a labial, are kept apart, in order to preferve the analogy of the
fyflem ; and the other two are introduced between the two femivowels;
the firft of thefe is ra, as in Rama, the conqueror of Si/an.
The fecond is /a, in Lanca, another name of that ifland both in Tibut,
and in India. A defeft in the organs of the common Bengalefe often
caufes a confufion between thefe two liquids, and even the found of
na is frequently fubftituted for the letter before us.
When this charadler correfponds, as it fometimes does in Smtfcrit,.
with our iva, it is in facfl our Jifth Jloort vowel preceding another in
forming a diphthong, and might eafily be fpared in our fyftem of letters;
but, when it has the found of va, it is a labial formed by ftriking the
lower
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 203
lower lip againil; the upper teeth, and might thus be arranged in a feries
of proportionals, pa, Ja, ba, va. It cannot ealily be pronounced in
this manner by the inhabitants of Bengal and fome other provinces, who
confound it with ba, from which it ought carefully to be diftinguiihed ;
fmce we cannot conceive, that in fo perfedt a fyftem as the Sanfcrit,
there could ever have been two fymbols for the fame found. In fad: the
Monies Parveti of our ancient Geographers were (o named from Parveta,
not Parbeta, a mountain. The ivaw of the Arabs is always a vowel,
either feparate or coalefcing with another in the form of a diphthong ;
but in Perjian words it is a confonant, and pronounced like our 'va, though
with rather lefs force.
Then follow three fibilants, the firft of which is often, very inaccu-
rately, confounded with the fecond, and even with the third: it belongs
to that clafs of confonants, which, in the notation here propofed, are
expreffed by acute accents above them to denote an inverfion of the
tongue towards the palate, whence this letter is called in India the
palatine fa. It occurs in a great number of words, and fliould be
written as in palds'a, the name of a facred tree with a very brilliant
flower. In the fame manner may be noted the s'ad of tlie Arabs
and Hebrews, which laft it refembles in fhape, and probably refem-
bled in found ; except that in Cas'mir and the provinces bordering
on Perjia it is hardly diftinguifhable from the following letter.
T\iQ. fecond is improperly written ^'« in our TLnglijh fyflem, and cha,
ftill more erroneoufly, in that of the French ; but the form generally
known may be retained, to avoid the inconvenience of too great a
change even from wrong to right. This letter, of which fa and ba
arc
204 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
are not the component parts, is formed fo far back in the head, that
the Indians call it a cerebral : either it was not articulated by the Greeks,
or they chofe to exprefs it by their Xi ; fince of the Pcrjian word
Ardajlnr they have formed Artaxerxes.
The dental fa, which refembles the Hebrew letter of the fame found,
and, like that, is often miftaken by ignorant copyifls for the ma.
The ftrong breathing ha, but rather mifplaced in the Ndgar} fyftem ;
fince it is the fecond element of articulate founds: the very hard breath-
ing of the Arabs may be well exprefled by doubling the mark of afpira-
tion, as in Muhhamtned, or by an accent above it in the manner of the
long vowels, as in Ahmed.
The Indian fyftem of letters clofes with a compound of ca and Jloa,
as in the word paricfia, ordeal : it is analogous to our x, a fuperfluous
character, of no ufe, that I know of, except in algebra. The Bengalefe
give it the found of cya, or of our k in fuch words as kind and_/5_y ; but
we may conclude, that the other pronunciation is very ancient, lince the
old Perfians appear to have borrowed their word Racjhah from the
Racjha, or demon of the Hindus, which is written with the letter before
us. The Greeks rendered this letter by their Khi, changing Dacjlnn, or
the fouth, into Dakhin.
All the founds ufed in Sanfcrit, Arabick, Perjian, and Hindi, are ar-
ranged fyilematically in the table prefixed to this diflertation * ; and the
* Plate I.
fingular
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 205
lingular letter of the Arabs, which they call am, is placed immediately
before the confonants. It might have been claffed, as the modern "Jews
pronounce it, among the flrong nafals of the Indians ; but, in Arabia
and Perjia, it has a very different found, of which no verbal defcription
can give an idea, and may not improperly be called a nafal vowel: it is
uniformly diftinguifhed by a circumjiex either above a fhort vowel or
over the letter preceding a long one, as ilm, learning, adlim, learned.
Agreeably to the preceding analyfis of letters, if I were to adopt a
new mode of EngliJJj orthography, I fliould write Addifons defcription
of the angel in the following manner, diftinguifliing the Jimple breath-
ing, or firft element, which we cannot invariably omit, by a perpen-
dicular line above our firfl or fecond vowel :
So hwen sm enjel, bai divain camand,
Widh railin tempefts fliecs a gilti land,
Sch az av let or pel Britanya paft.
Calm and lirfn hi draivz dhi fyuryas blaft.
And, pliz'd dh'almaitiz arderz tu perform.
Raids in dhi hwerlwind and daired:s dhi Harm.
This mode of writing poetry would be the touchftone of bad rhymes,
which the eye as well as the ear would inflantly detedl ; as in the firfl
couplet of this defcription, and even in the laft, according to the com-
mon pronunciation of the v^orA. perform. I clofe this paper with fpeci-
mens of oriental writing, not as fixed ftandards of orthography, which
no individual has a right to fettle, but as examples of the method,
which I recommend ; and, in order to relieve the drynefs of the fub-
jedt, I annex tranflations of all but the firft fpecimen, which I referve
for another occafion.
I. Four
2O0 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
I.
Four D'ljUchsfrom the Sr'ibha'gawat *.
Mr. WiLKiNs's Orthography.
ahamevasamevagre nanyadyat sadasat param
pafchadaham yadetachcha yovaseefhyeta sofmyaham
reetertham yat prateeyeta na prateeyeta chatmanee
tadveedyad atmano mayam yatha bhaso yatha tamah
yatha n:iahantee bh65tanee bhooteflioochchavachefliwanoo
praveeflitanyapraveellitanee tatha teflioo natefhwaham
etavadeva jeeinafyam tattwa jeejnasoonatmanab
anwaya vyateerekabhyam yat fyat sarvatra sarvada.
This wonderful pafTage I fliould exprefs in the following manner :
ahamevafamevagre nanyadyat fadafat param
pas'chadaham yadetachcha yovas ifliyeta fofmyaham
ntert'ham yat pratiyeta na pratiyeta chatmani
tadvidyadatmano rrtayam yat'ha bhafo yat 'ha tamah
yat'ha mahanti bhutani bhuteflnichchavachefliwanu
pravifh'tanyapravifh tani tat'ha telhu na tefliwaham
etavadeva jijnyafyam tattwa jijnyafunatmanah
anwaya vyatirecabhyam yat fyat fervatra fervada.
» See Plate IV. The Letters arc in Plate II.
II. Mo'ha
lo/J /III ll'fl.
J'/nle Jl. '
t ^,«M5f. -. '^■■•wiM^wr* ■^«^»^*f^"*«*>««i^.
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 207
II.
Mo'ha Mudgara.
The title of this fine piece properly fignifies The Mallet of Delufion
or Folly, but may be tranflated A Remedy for DifraSlion of Mind : it is
compofed in regular anapceftick verfes according to the ftrifteft rules of
Greek profody, but in rhymed couplets, two of which here form a
s Idca^
54^^c^r^3if chilli 3° f^3° c^t^[it?imi^° \\
208 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
mud'ha jahi'hi dhanagamatriflin'am
curu tenubuddhimanah fuvitrTflindm
yallabhase nijacarmopattam
vittam tena vinodaya chittam.
c4
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 20C)
ca tava canta cafle putrah
fanfcaroyam ativavichlttrah
cafya twam va cuta ayata
ftattwam chintaya tadidam bhratah.
ma curu dhanajanayauvanagarvam
harati nimefhat calah farvam
mayamayamidamac'hilam hitwa
brehmapadam previs'as'u viditwa,
nalinidalagatajalavattaralam
tadvajjivanamatis'aya chapalam
cflienamiha fajjana fangatireca
bhawati bhavvarnavatarane nauca.
angam galitam palitani mund'ain
dantavihin'am jatam tund'am
caradhritacampitas'obhitadand'am
tadapi namunchatyas'a bhand'am.
yavajjananam tavanmaran'am
tavajjanani jat'hare s'ayanam
iti fansare fp'hut'atara dolhah
cat'hamiha manava tava fantofliah.
dinayaminyau sayam pratah
s'is'iravafantau punarayatah
calah end ati gach'hatyayu
ftadapi na munchatyas'avayuh.
VOL. 1. G G fura-
210 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
furavaramandiratarutalavafah
s'ayya bhutalamajinam vafah
fervaparigrahabhogatyagah
calya fuc'ham na caroti viragah.
s'atrau mitre putre bandhau
ma curu yatnam vigrahafandhau
bhava famachittah fervatra twam
vanch'hafyachirad yadi vifhnutwam.
afh'taculachalafeptafamudra
brehmapurandaradinacararudrah
natwam naham nayam Idea
ftadapl cimart'ham criyate s'ocah.
twayi mayi chanyatraico vifliiiur
vyart'ham cupyafi mayyafahifhnuh
fervam pas'yatmanyatmanam
fervatrotfrija bhedaj nyanam.
valaftavat crid'as'adla
ftarun'aftavat taruniradlah
vriddhaftavach chintamagnah
pereme brahman'i copi nalagnah.
dwadas'a pajj'hat'icabhiras efhah
s'ifhyanam cat'hitobhyupades'ah
yertiam naifba caroti vivecam
tefham cah curutamatirecam.
A verbal
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 21 1
A verbal Tranflation.
1. Reflrain, deluded mortal, thy thirft of acquiring wealth; excite an
zweriion from it in thy body, underftanding, and inclination : with the
riches, which tliou acquire!!: by thy own adtions, with thefe gratify
thy foul.
2. Who is thy wife; who thy fon; how extremely wonderful is even
this world; whofe creature thou alfo art; whence thou cameft — medi-
tate on this, O brother, and again on this.
3. Make no boail of opulence, attendants, youth; all thefe time
fnatches av/ay in the twinkling of an eye : checking all this illufion like
Maya, fet thy heart on the foot of Brahme, fpeedily gaining know-
ledge of him,
4. As a drop of water moves tremulous on the lotos-leaf, thus is hu-
man life inexpreflibly flippery: the company of the virtuous endures here
but for a moment ; that is our fhip in pafling the ocean of the world.
5. The body is tottering; the head, grey; the mouth, toothlefs: the
delicate ftaff trembles in the hand, which holds it : ilill the flaggon of
covetoufnefs remains unemptied.
fi. How foon are ive born ! how foon dead ! how long lying in the
mother's womb ! How great is the prevalence of vice in this world !
Wherefore, O man, haft thou complacency here below ?
7. Day and night, evening and morning, winter and fpring depart
and return: time fports, life paffes on; yet the wind of expectation
continues unreftrained.
8. To
212 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
8. To dwell under the manfion of the high Gods at the foot of a
tree, to have the ground for a couch, and a hide for vefture ; to re-
nounce all extrinfick enjoyments, — whom doth not fuch devotion fill
with dehght ?
f). Place not thy affedlions too ftrongly on foe or friend, on a fon or
a kinfman, in war or in peace : be thou even-minded towards all, if
thou defirefl fpeedily to attain the nature of Vishnu.
10. Eight original mountains, and feven feas, Brahme, Indra, the
Sun, and Rudra, thefe are permanent : not thou, not I, not this or that
people ; wherefore then fhould anxiety be raifed in our minds ?
11. In thee, in me, in every other being is Vishnu; fooliflily art
thou offended with me, not bearing my approach : fee every foul in thy
own foul ; in all places lay afide a notion of diverfity.
12. The boy fo long delights in his play; the youth fo long purfues
his damfel ; the old man fo long broods over uneafinefs ; that no one
meditates on the Supreme Being.
13. This is the inftrudlion of learners delivered in twelve diftinft
flanzas : what more can be done with fuch, as this work fills not
with devotion ?
III.
The following elegy, which is chofen as a fpecimen of Arabick*,
was compofed by a learned Philofopher and Scholar, Mi'r Mu-
HAMMED HusAiN, before his journey to Haidarabad ^nih. Richard
Johnson, Efq.
• Plate V. and Plate III.
7m
/'<•/././"> ■■/:! /'/„/,. f-
^^^dU
yr r X(
I/if 1"-" ^''^
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 21 o
ma anfa Id dnfa dllati
jdat ilayya dlai hadhar
dlnaumu dthkala jafnahd
wadlkalbu t'dra bihi dldhadr
ras'adat dsdwida kaumihd
Jatakhallafat mtnhd dlgharar
nazadt khaldkhildn lehd
dlld tufdjihd bipoar
tejkcu alt' arika lid hiilmahin'
fakadat bihd najma dlfahhar
fi lailahin kad cahhalat
bifawddihd jafna dlkamar
wa ierai dlghamdma cadjmulin'
terdi dlnujuma dlai djkar
tebci uyi'inon' lilfemdi
dlai h addy'ikihd alziihar
ivadlberku yebjimu thegriihu
djabdri Ithdtica dlghiyar
wadlrddu cdda yukharriku
aids' mdkha fi s'ummi dlh'ajar
fiihaivat tiiddnikiini wakad
h'adharat indki min khafar
wadldemu bella khududahd
wafakai riyad'd?i lilnad'har
cateneffafat
214 ON THE OR'illOGRAPHY
ivatcneffajat id' b callamat
ivaramat fuivadi hidlJJjerar
d hallat tuddtibunei dlai
an jcdda It dzmu dlfafar
kdJat ddbabta fuwddand
waddhaktahu h'erra dlfakar
tads' i dwdvicra lilhawai
ivatiit'iuu nds'ih'aca dlghudar
watedurii min drd'in' ilai
drd'tri leamd terd'di dlmekarr
yaumdn tcsiric bica dlbihhdrii
watdrah' an tiir?nai bibarr
ma dhd djddaca jaiilahon'
h'aula dlbilddi fiwai did' ajar
adlifta dd hbda dlfeld
ivanesita drama dlbdjljer
dm kad melelta jiivdrand
ya ivdiha khillm kad nafar
fdrh'em dlai kalbi dlladhi
rdma dlfuhiwwa ivamd kadar.
The Tranflation.
1. Never, oh ! Jiever lliall I forget the fair one, who came to my tent
with tunid circumfpeiflion :
2. Sleep fat heavy on her eye-lids, and her heart fluttered with fear.
3. She
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 215
3. She had marked the dragons of her tribe (the fentinels), and
had difmifTed all dread of danger from them :
4. She had laid afide the rings, which ufed to grace her ankles ; left
the found of them fhould expofe her to calamity :
5. She deplored the darknefs of the way, which hid from her the
morning- ftar.
6. It was a night, when the eye-lafhes of the moon were tinged with
the black powder (Alcohol) of the gloom :
7. A night, in which thou mightefl have it&w the clouds, like
camels, eagerly grazing on the ftars ;
8. While the eyes of heaven wept on the bright borders of the fky ;
g. The lightning difplayed his fhining teeth, with wonder at this
change in the firmament ;
10. And the thunder almoft burft the ears of the deafened rocks.
1 1 . She was defirous of embracing me, but, through modefly, de-
clined my embrace.
12. Tears bedewed her cheeks, and, to my eyes, watered a bower
of roles.
13. When file fpake, her panting fighs blew flames into my heart.
14. She continued expoftulating with me on my exceflive delire of
travel.
15. ' Thou
210 ON THE ORTHOGR.VPHY
15. * Thou haft melted my heart, fhe faid, and made it feel Inex-
* preffible anguilli.
lO, * Thou art perverfe in thy condudl to her who loves thee, and
* obfequious to thy guileful advifer.
17- ' Thou goeft round from country to country, and art never
* pleafed with a fixed refidence.
18. ' One while the feas roll with thee; and, another while, thou
' art agitated on the fliore.
IQ. * What fruit, but painful fatigue, can arife from rambling over
* foreign regions ?
20. ' Haft thou afTociated thyfelf with the wild antelopes of the de-
' fert, and forgotten the tame deer ?
21. ' Art thou weary then of our neighbourhood? O wo to him,
' who flees from his beloved !
22. • Have pity at length on my afflidled heart, which feeks relief,
' and cannot obtain it.'
Each couplet of the original confifts of two Dmeter lambicks, and
muft be read in the proper cadence.
IV.
As a fpecimen of the old Ferjian language and charadler, I fubjoin a
very curious paffage from the Zend, which was communicated to me
by Bahman the fon of Bahra m, a native of Tezd, and, as his
name indicates, a Panl : he wrote the paffage from memory ; fince
his
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 217
his books in Fahlavi and Deri are not yet brought to Bengal. It
is a fuppofed anfwcr of I'zad or God to Zera'htusht, who had
afked by what means mankind could attain happinefs.
Az pid u mad che ce pid u mad ne khoflmud b\d hargiz bihijht ne vimd ',
be jdyi cirfah bizah vimd: mehdn ra be dzarm nic darid, cehdn ra be hich
gunah maydzdnd : aj kbipdvendi dervijl:) nang meddrid : ddd u venddd i
khdliki yeSid beh car ddrid ; az rijldkhizi ten pasin endifieh nemdyid ;
mabddd ce ajhii ten khiJJ:) rd duzakhi cumd, va dnche be khiJJiten najhdhad
be cafdn mapafettd'id va ma cumd: her che be git), cumd be mainu az aueh
pazirah dyed * .
A Verbal Tranllation.
*' If you do that with which your father and mother are not pleafed,
you fhall never fee heaven j inflead of good fpirits, you fliall fee evil
beings : behave with honefty and with refpeft to the great j and on no
account injure the mean : hold not your poor relations a reproach to you:
imitate the juftice and goodnefs of the Only Creator: meditate on the
refurredlion of the future body; left you make your fouls and bodies the
inhabitants of hellj and whatever would be unpleafing to yourfelves,
think not that pleafing to others, and do it not: whatever good you do
on earth, for that you fhall receive a retribution in heaven."
It will, perhaps, be fufpedled (and the language itfelf may confirm
the fufpicion), that this dodtrine has been taken from a religion very
different both in age and authority, from that of Zera'htusht.
V.
The following ftory in modern Perjian was given to me by Mirzd
Abdu'lrahhi'm of Isfahan: it feems extradled from one of the
* Plate VII. The Zend Letters are in Plate III.
VOL. I. H H many
218 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
many poems on the loves of Mejnu'n and Lail'i, the Romeo and
Juliet of the Eafl. Each verfe confifts of a Cretick foot followed
by two Choriambij or a Choriambus and a Molojfus.
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 21 ^
I, y<^, ''-'Lt ;J o;^ LV::^ J^v^ ^CO^ ,
220 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
Shirmajii feri pijldni diem
pevoerejh ydftehi dumeni ghem
abi rang o rokh'i laildyi joniin
khdli rokhjdrehi hdmun Mejnun
ydft chun rah bi cdjlmnehi ijfik
afitdnjlmd bideri khdnehi ijhk
berfereJJ: Jloakhs i jonun fdyah Jicand
kis's'ehi ddjhiki dfi gaj}:>t boland
der drab her t'arafi ghaugha Jhud
nakli u nokli mejdlis-hd JJmd
bud dmiri bidrab vdldjfjdn
s'ab'ibi micnat bfervat * bijehdn
tore tdzi ghemt hejrdn didab
pur guli ddghi moh'abbat cbidah
didah der t'tjiiyi khod suziferdk
talkhiyi zahri ferdkejlo bimezdk
* The reader will fupply the point over /, when it ftands for th.
ydft
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 221
ydft chun kh's'ehian derdjigal
card fer man bighuldmi der h dl
ceh suyi najd kadamfdz zifer.
flmu beh tdjil ravdn chun s ers'er
an ceh dil bordah zi Mejniin bi nigdh
beh berem zud biydver hemrdh
raft 0 dvard ghuldmac der h'dl
Lain an pddifiahi mulct jemdl
beh ghuldmi digarejh (hud fermdn
ceh to hempau bi suyt dapt ravdn
jdnihi zinati drbdbijonun
Jkemi pur nuri mohabbat Mejniin
ziid aver berem an sukhtah rd
an jigarsiizi ghem dndukhtah rd
raft 0 bergajht ghuldmac chu nigdh
vdliyi cifivari ijhkep hemrdh
card urd chu nazar mardi amir
did zdri bi ghemi ijhk dsir
ber fercjhpakhs'ijonun cardah vat' en
zakhmi hejrdn bi tenejh pirdhen
muyi fer ber hedenejh gajl.^tah koba
muzah dz dbilahi pa ber pd
jhdnah
222 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHX
Jhanah dz khdrt muglnldn her mujls
khirkah dz rigi biydbdn ber dujh
goft cd\ gomflmdahi vddiyl ghem
hich khwdhi ceh temenndt dehem
ferferdzat ciinam dz micnat 6 jdh
Laili drem biberet khdt'er khwdh
goft rit til ceh haiidejl baiid
zerreh rd hem nazari bd khqrjhid,
goft klnvdhi ceh com rdji bigu
fairi an s'afh'ahi rokhfdri mcu
yd neddri bijemdlejh mail}
rdJl berguyi bijdni Lai/i
goft cdi kodvahi drbdbi cerem
zerrahi khdci deret tdjiferem
ber dilem derd zi Laiti cdfi/i
khwaheJJn vas I zi bi infdfiji
bahri khorfendiyi in jozvi h'akir
bas buvad pertavt dz mihri tJionir
goft 0 gardtd suy\ dajht ravdn
didah girydn o tnizhah djljcfjhdn
The
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 223
The Tranflation.
1 . The tfjan, who had inebriated himfelf with milk from the nipple of
Anguifh, who had been nourilhed in the lap of Affliiflion,
2. Mejnu'n, mad with the bright hue and fair face of Laili, him-
felf a dark mole on the cheek of the defert,
3. Having found the way to the manfion of love, became jixed like
the threlhold on the door of love's palace.
4. Over his head the form of Madnefs had cafl her fhadow : the tale
of his paffion was loudly celebrated.
5 . Among the Arabs a tumult arofe on all fides : the relation of his
adventures was a deffert in their aflemblies.
6. A powerful Prince reigned in Arabia, pofTeffing worldly magnifi-
cence and riches :
7. He had feen the depredations of Grief through abfence from a be-
loved obje<ft : he had plucked many a black-fpotted flower from the
garden o/'love.
8. Even in his infancy he had felt the pain of feparation : the bitter
tafte of that poifon remained on his palate.
9. When he learned the llory of that afflidled lover, he inflantly gave
an order to a flave,
10. Saying, ♦ Make thy head like thy feet in running towards Najd ;
* go with celerity, like a violejit wind :
1 1 . Bring
224 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
11.* Bring fpeedily with thee to my prefence Her, who has ftolen
* the heart of Mejnu'n with a glance.'
12. The ftriphng ran, and in a fliort time brought Laili, that
Emprefs in the dominion of beauty.
1 3 . To another flave the Prince gave this order : ' Run thou alfo
* into the defert,
14. * Go to that ornament of frantick lovers, Mejnu'n, the illu-
* mined taper of love.
15. * Bring quickly before me that inflamed youth, that heart-con-
* fumed anguifh-pierced lover.'
lO. The boy went, and returned, in the twinkling of an eye, accom-
panied by the ruler in the territories of love.
17. When the Prince looked at him, he beheld a wretch in bondage
to the mifery of de fire.
18. Madnefs had fixed her abode on this head: he was clothed, as
with a veft, with the wounds of feparation.
19. His locks flowed, like a mantle, over his body: his only fandal
was the callus of his feet.
20. In his hair ftuck a comb oi Arabian thorns : a robe of fand from
the defert covered his back.
21. ' O THOU,
OF ASIATIGK WORDS. 225
21. * O THOU, l^iid the Prince, who haft been loft in the valley of
' forrow; doft thou not wifli me to give thee the objedl of thy paffion,
22. * To exalt thee with dignity and power, to bring LailI before
' thee gratifying thy foul ?'
23. * No, no ; anfwered he, far, far is it from my wifli, that an atom
' fliould be feen together with the fun.'
24. ' Speak truly, replied the Prince, art thou not wiUing to recreate
* thyfelf on the fmooth plain of that beautiful cheek ?
25. ' Or haft thou no inclination to enjoy her charms ? I adjure
* thee, by the foul of LailI, to declare the truth!'
f
26. He rejoined : * O chief of men with generous hearts, a particle
* of duft from thy gate is a diadem on my head.
2;. ' The pain of my love for LailI is fufficient for my heart: a
* wifli to enjoy her prefence thus would be injuftice.
28. * To gratify this contemptible foul of mine, a fingle ray from
* that bright luminary would be enough.'
20. He fpake, and ran towards the defert, his eye weeping, and his
eye-laflies raining tears.
Thefe couplets would fully anfwer the purpofe of fhowing the method,
in which Perftan may be written according to the original charaders,
with fome regard alfo to the Isfaham pronunciation ; but, fince a very
ingenious artift, named Muhammed Ghau'th, has engraved a tetra-
voL. 1. I I ftich
226 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY
ftich on copper, as a fpecimen of his art, and fince no movable types
can equal the beauty of Perjian writing, I annex his plate *, and add
the four lines, which he has felecfted, in EngliJJ,^ letters : they are too
eafy to require a tranflation, and too infignificant to deferve it,
Huwa'l dztz
Chafl^mi terahlhun zi to ddrim via
keblah toyi ru beceh anm ma
h'djati ma dz to ber ayed temam
ddmenat dz caf naguzdnm md,
VI.
The firft fpecimen of Hindi, that occurs to me, is a little Ghazal or
love-fong, in a Choriambick meafure, written by Gunna' Be i gum,
the wife of Gha'ziu'ldin Kh an, a man of confummate abilities
and confummate wickednefs, who has borne an a(5tive part in the
modern tranfaftions of Upper Hindu/ldn.
* Plate VI.
Muddan
/}'///></■ ;'L>/->"
/%?/^ /z
^^, I y/'i- .oK/ ^^^ •^>i 4 fe/
■c^;
-"- A^^
OF ASIATICK WORDS. 227
Muddaii hemse fokhan fdz bi Jdlusi hat
ab tamenna co yehan muzhede'i mdyusi bdi
ah ab cafrati ddghi g/iemi khubdti se temam
s aflidi sinah mera jilwdi t'dust hoi
hdi men t'arah' jigar khuni tira muddatse
at Kinnd cijci tujhe khwdhijln pdbusi hdi
awazi derd meze se ivah bhere Juiin sure
jis lebi zakham ne JhemJJAri teri chus\ hdi
tohmati ijhk abas cart} halt mujhper Minnat
han yeh fech milne ci khubdn se tu tuc khust hdi.
The Tranflation.
1 . My beloved foe fpeaks of me with diffimulation ; and now the
tidings of defpair are brought hither to the defire of my foul.
2. Alas, that the fmooth furface of my bofom, through the marks
of burning in the fad abfence of lovely youths, is become like the
plumage of a peacock.
3. Like me, O Hinnd (the fragrant and elegant fhrub, with the
leaves of which the nails of Arabian women are dyed crimfon), thy
heart has long been full of blood : whofe foot art tliou defirous of
kiffing ?
4. Inftead of pain, my beloved, every wound from thy cimcter fucks
with its lips the fweetnefs, with which it is filled.
5. The
228
5. The fufplcion of love is vainly cafl on Minnat — Yes ; true it
is, that my nature rather leads me to the company of beautiful youths.
Thus have I explained, by obfervations and examples, my method of
noting in Roman letters the principal languages of AJia ; nor can I
doubt, that Armenian, T^iirkijl:i, and the various dialedts of Tartary,
may be expreffed in the fame manner v^^ith equal advantage ; but, as
Chinefe words are not written in alphabetical chara<5ters, it is obvious,
that they mufl be noted according to the beft pronunciation ufed in
China ; which has, I imagine, few founds incapable of being rendered
by the fymbols ufed in this eflay.
ON
ON
THE GODS OF GREECE, ITALY, AND INDIA,
If'RITTEN IN 1784, JND SINCE RE/'ISED.
BY
The president.
VY E cannot juilly conclude, by arguments preceding the proof of
fadls, that one idolatrous people muft have borrowed their deities,
rites, and tenets from another ; fince Gods of all fliapes and dimen-
fions may be framed by the boundlefs powers of imagination, or by the
frauds and folhes of men, in countries never connedled ; but, when
features of refemblance, too ftrong to have been accidental, are ob-
fervable in different fyftems of polytheifm, without fancy or prejudice
to colour them and improve the likenefs, we can fcarce help believing,
that fome conne<5tion has immemorially fubfifted between the feveral
nations, who have adopted them : it is my defign in this eifay, to point
out fuch a refemblance between the popular worfliip of the old Greeks
and Italians and that of the Hindus; nor can there be room to doubt of a
great fimilarity between their flrange religions and that of Egypt, China,
Perjia, Phrygia, Phcenice, Syria; to which, perhaps, we may fifely
add fome of the fouthern kingdoms and even iflands of America ; while
the Gothick fyftem, which prevailed in the northern regions of Europe,
was not merely limilar to thofe of Greece and Italy, but almoil: the fame
in
230 ' ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
in another drefs with an embroidery of images apparently yljiatkk.
From all this, if it be fatisfaftorily proved, we may infer a general
union or affinity between the moft diftinguillied inhabitants of the pri-
mitive world, at the time when they deviated, as they did too early devi-
ate, from the rational adoration of the only true God.
There feem to have been four principal fources of all mythology.
I. Hiftorical, or natural, truth has been perverted into fable by igno-
rance, imagination, flattery, or ftupidity ; as a king of Crete, whofe
tomb had been difcovered in that ifland, was conceived to have been the
God oi Olympus, and Minos, a legillator of that country, to have been
his fon, and to hold a fupreme appellate jurifdidlion over departed fouls;
hence too probably flowed the tale of Cadmus, as Bochart learnedly
traces it ; hence beacons or volcanos became one-eyed giants and mon-
fters vomiting flames j and two rocks, from their appearance to mari-
ners in certain pofitions, were fuppofed to cruili all velfels attempting to
pafs between them ; of which idle fiitions many other infl:ances might
be collecfted from the OdyJJ'cy and the various Argonautick poems. The
lefs we fay of "Julian ftars, deifications of princes or warriours, altars
raifed, with thofe of Apollo, to the bafeft of men, and divine titles
beftowed on fuch wretches as Cajus Octavianus, the lefs we fliall
expofe the infamy of grave fenators and fine poets, or the brutal folly o^
the low multitude : but we may be afliired, that the mad apotheofis of
truly great men, or of little men falfely called great, has been the origin
■ofgrofs idolatrous errors in every part of the pagan world. II. The
next fource of them appears to have been a wild admiration of the
heavenly bodies, and, after a time, the fyftems and calculations of
Aftronomers : hence came a confiderable portion of 'Egyptian and Grecian
fable ; the Sabian worfliip in Arabia ; the Perjian types and emblems of
Mihr or the fun, and the far extended ado ation of the elements and
the powers of nature ; and hence perhaps, all the artificial Chronology
of
ITALY, AND INDIA. 231
of the Chincfe and Indians, with the invention of demigods and heroes to
fill the vacant niches in their extravagant and imaginary periods. III.
Numberlefs divinities have been created folely by the magick of poetry;
w^hofe efTential bufinefs it is, to perfonify the moft abftra<fl notions, and
to place a nymph or a genius in every grove and almoft in every flower:
hence Hygieia and Jafo, health and remedy, are the poetical daughters
of iEscuLAPius, who was either a diflinguiflied phyfician, or medical
fkill perfonified j and hence Chloris, or verdure, is married to the Ze-
phyr. IV. The metaphors and allegories of moralifts and metaphy-
ficians have been alfo very fertile in Deities ; of which a thoufand ex-
amples might be adduced from Plato, Cicero, and the inventive
commentators on Homer in their pedigrees of the Gods, and their
fabulous lefTons of morality : the richefl and nobleft ftream from this
abundant fountain is the charming philofophical tale of Psyche, or the
Progrefs of the Soul-, than which, to my tafte, a more beautiful, fub-
blime, and well fupported allegory was never produced by the wifdom
and ingenuity of man. Hence alfo the Indian Ma'ya', or, as the word
is explained by fome Hindu fcholars, " the firft inclination of the God-
" head to diverfify himfelf (fuch is their phrafe) by creating worlds,"
is feigned to be the mother of univerfal nature, and of all the inferiour
Gods ; as a Cajhmirian informed me, when I afked him, why Ca'ma,
or Lo've, was reprefented as her fon \ but the word Ma'ya', or delufion^
has a more fubtile and recondite fenfe in the Vedanta philofophy, where
it fignifies the fyfteni oi perceptions, whether of fecondary or of primary
qualities, which the Deity was believed by Epicharmus, Plato,
and many truly pious men, to raife by his omniprefent fpirit in the
minds of his creatures, but which had not, in their opinion, any exig-
ence independent of mind.
In drawing a parallel between the Gods of the Indian and European
heathens, from whatever fource they were derived, I fhall remember,
that
232 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
, that nothing is lefs favourable to enquiries after truth than a fyilematical
fpirit, and fliall call to mind the faying of a Hindu writer, " that who-
*' ever obftinately adheres to any fet of opinions, may bring himfelf to
*' believe that the freflieft fandal-wood is a flame of fire:" this will
effecftually prevent me from infifting, that fuch a God of LjcUa was the
Jupiter of Greece ; fuch, the Apollo j fuch, the Mercury : in fad:,
fince all the caufes of polytheifm contributed largely to the aflemblage
oi Grecian divinities (though Bacon reduces them all to refined allego-
ries, and Newton to a poetical difguife of true hiflory), we find many
JovES, many Apollos, many Mercuries, with difiindl attributes and
capacities ; nor fliall I prefume to fuggell more, than that, in one capa-
city or another, there exifls a flriking fimilltude between the chief ob-
jedls of worfliip in ancient Greece or Italy and in the very interefling
country, which we now inhabit.
The corhparifon, which I proceed to lay before you, mufl needs be
, very fuperficial, partly from my Ihort refidence in Hindujlan, partly
from my want of complete leifurc for literary amufements, but princi-
pally becaufe I have no TLuropean book, to refrefli my memory of old
fables, except the conceited, though not unlearned, work of Pomey,
entitled the Pantheon, and that fo miferably tranflated, that it can hardly
be read with patience. A thoufand more flrokes of refemblance might,
I am fure, be colledled by any, who fliould with that view perufe
Hesiod, Hyginus, Corn ut us, and the other mythologifls ; or,
which would be a fliorter and a pleafantcr way, fliould be fatisfied with
the very elegant Symtagtnata of Lilius Giraldus.
Difquifitions concerning the manners and conduit of our fpecies in
early times, or indeed at any time, are always curious at leafl; and amuf-
Ingj but they are highly interefling to fuch, as can fay of themfelves
with
ITALY, AND INDIA,
>oo
with Chremes in the play, " We are men, and take an interelt in all
** that relates to mankind :" They may even be of folid importance in
an age, when fome intelligent and virtuous perfons are inclined to doubt
the authenticity of the accounts, delivered by Moses, concerning the
primitive world ; fince no modes or fources of reafoning can be unim-
portant, which have a tendency to remove fuch doubts. Either the
firft eleven chapters of Genefis, all due allowances being made for a
figurative Eaftern ilyle, are true, or the whole fabrick of our national
religion is falfe ; a conclulion, which none of us, I trufl, would wilh to
be drawn. I, who cannot help believing the divinity of the Messiah,
from the undifputed antiquity and manifell completion of many pro-
phefies, efpecially thole of Isaiah, in the only perlbn recorded by
hiflory, to whom they are applicable, am obliged of courfe to believe
the fandity of the venerable books, to which that facred perfon refers
as genuine ; but it is not the truth of our national religion, as fuch,
that I have at heart : it is truth itfelf ; and, if any cool unbialled
reafoner will clearly convince me, that Moses drew his narrative
through Egyptian conduits from the priaieval fountains of Indian litera-
ture, I lliall efteem him as a friend for having weeded my mind from a
capital error, and promife to Hand among the foremoft in aflifling to
circulate the truth, which he has afcertained. After fuch a declaration,
I cannot but periuade myfelf, that no candid man will be difpleafed, if,
in the courfe of my work, I make as free with any arguments, that he
may have advanced, as I Ihould really defire him to do with any of
mine, that he may be difpofed to controvert. Having no fyftem of my
own to maintain, I fliall not purfue a very regular method, but fhall
take all the Gods, of whom I dilbourfe, as they happen to prelent
themfelves j beginning, however, like the Romans and the Hindus,
with Janu or Gane'sa.
VOL. I. K K The
234 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
The titles and attributes of this old Italian deity are fully comprized
in two choriambick verfes of Sulpitius ; and a farther account of him
from Ovid would here be fuperfluous :
Jane pater, Jane tuens, dive biceps, biformis,
O cate rerum fator, O principium deorum !
" Father Janus, all-beholding Janus, thou divinity with two heads,
•' and with two forms ; O fagacious planter of all things, and leader
" of deities!"
He was the God, we fee, of Wifdom', whence he is reprefented on
coins with two, and, on the Hetrufcan image found at Falifci, with
four, faces; emblems of prudence and circumfpedlion : thus is Gane'sa,
the God of Wifdom in Hindujian, painted with an Elephanfs head, the
fymbol of fagacious difcemment, and attended by a favourite rat, which
the Indians confider as a wife and provident animal. His next great
character (the plentiful fource of many fuperftitious ufages) was that,
from which he is emphatically ftyled the father, and which the fecond
verfe before-cited more fully exprefles, the origin and founder of all
things: whence this notion arofe, unlefs from a tradition that he firft
built flirines, raifed altars, and inftituted facrifices, it is not eafy to
conjecture ; hence it came however, that his name was invoked before
any other Godj that, in the old facred rites, corn and wine, and, in
later times, incenfe alfo, were firft otFered to Janus ; that the doors or
entrances to private houfes were called Januce, and any pervious pafTage
or thorough-fare, in the plural number, Jani, or with two beginnings ;
that he was reprefented holding a rod as guardian of ways, and a key,
as opening, not gates only, but all important works and affairs of man-
kind ; that he was thought to prefide over the morning, or beginning of
day;
Vol.1.
/
fl.234-
ITALY, AND INDIA. 235
Jay; that, although the Roman year began regularly with March, yet
the eleventh month, named Januariust was confidered as Jirji of the
twelve, whence the whole year was fuppofed to be under his guidance,
and opened with great folemuity by the confuls inaugurated in his fane,
where his ftatue was decorated on that occafion with frelh laurel ; and,
for the fame reafon, a folemn denunciation of war, than which there
can hardly be a more momentous national adt, was made by the military
conful's opening the gates of his temple with all the pomp of his magi-
ftracy. The twelve altars and twelve chapels of Janus might either
denote, according to the general opinion, that he leads and governs
twelve months, or that, as he fays of himfelf in Ovid, all entrance and
accefs mufb be made through him to the principal Gods, who were,
to a proverb, of the fame number. We may add, that Janus was
imagined to prefide over infants at their birth, or the beginning of life.
The Indian divinity has preclfely the fame chara(5ter: all facrifices
and religious ceremonies, all addrefles even to fuperiour Gods, all ferious
compofitions in writing, and all worldly affairs of moment, are begun
by pious Hindus with an invocation of Gane'sa ; a word compofed of
ija, the governor or leader, and gan'a, or a company of deities, nine of
which companies are enumerated in the Atnarcojh. Inftances of open-
ing bufinefs aufpicioufly by an ejaculation to the Janus oi India (if the
lines of refemblance here traced will juftify me in fo calling him) might
be multiplied with eafe. Few books are begun without the vfovdisfalu-
tation to Gane's, and he is firft invoked by the Brdhmans, who con-
duct the trial by ordeal, or perform the ceremony of the homa, or facri-
fice to fire: M. Sonnerat reprefents him as highly revered on the
Coaft of Coromandel ; " where the Indians, he fays, would not on any
" account build a houfe, without having placed on the ground an image
" of this deity, which they fprinkle with oil and adorn every day with
** flowers; they fet up his figure in all their temples, in the ftreets, in
(<
tiic
230 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
** the high roads, and in open plains at the foot of fome tree j fo that
" perfons of all ranks may invoke him, before they undertake any
*' bufinefs,. and travellers worihip him, before they proceed on their
" journey." To this I may add, from my own obfervation, that in
the commodious and ufetul town, which now rifes at Dharmaranya or
Gaya, under the aufpices of the aftive and benevolent Thomas Law,
Efq. collector of Rotas, every new-built houfe, agreeably to an im-
memorial ufage of the Hindus, has the name of Game's A fuperfcribed
on its door ; and, in the old town, his image is placed over the gates
of the temples.
We come now to Saturn, the oldeft of the pagan Gods, of whofe
office and aftions much is recorded. The jargon of his being the fon of
Earth and of Heaven, who was the fon of the Sky and the Day, is
purely a confeffion of ignorance, who were his parents or who his pre-
deceflbrs ; and there appears more fenfe in the tradition faid to be
mentioned by the inquifitive and well informed Plato, " that both
" Saturn or time, and his confort Cybele, or the Earth, together
" with their attendants, were the children of Ocean and Thetis, or,
" in lefs poetical language, fprang from the waters of the great deep."
Ceres, the goddefs of harvefts, was, it feems, their daughter; and
Virgil defcribes *' the mother and nurfe of all as crowned with tur-
*' rets, in a car drawn by lions, and exulting in her hundred grand-
" fons, all divine, all inhabiting fplendid celeftial manlions." As the
God of time, or rather as time itfelf perfonilied, Saturn was ufually
painted by the heathens holding a fey the in one hand, and, in the other,
a fnake with its tail in its mouth, the fymbol of perpetual cycles and
revolutions of ages : he was often reprefented in the adl of devouring
years, in the form of children, and, fometimes, encircled by the feafons
appearing like boys and girls. By the Latins he was named Satun-
NUS; and the mofl ingenious etymology of that word is given by
Festus
ITALY, AND INDIA. 237
Festus the grammarian J who traces it^ by a learned analogy to many
fimilar names, a fatu, from planting, becaufe, when he reigned in
Italy, he introduced and improved agriculture : but his dirtinguifhing
charadler, which explains, indeed, all his other titles and functions,
was expreffed allegorically by the flern of a fhip or galley on the reverfe
of his ancient coins; for which Ovid affigns a very unfatisfadory
reafon, " becaufe the divine Ilranger arrived in a fliip on the Italian
" coaftj" as if he could have been expe(3;ed on horfe-back or hoverino-
through the air.
The account, quoted by Pomey from Alexander Polyhistor,
cafts a clearer light, if it really came from genuine antiquity, on the
whole tale of Saturn; " that he predidled an extraordinary fall of
*• rain, and ordered the conftrudlion of a veflel, in which it was
" neceffary to fecure men, hearts, birds, and reptiles from a general
" inundation."
Now it feems not eafy to take a cool review of all thefe teftimonies
concerning the birth, kindred, offspring, charadler, occupations, and
entire life of Saturn, without affenting to the opinion of Bochart,
or admitting it at leail to be highly probable, that the fable was raifed
on the true hiflory of Noah ; from whofe flood a new period of time
was computed, and a new feries of ages may be faid to have fprung ;
who rofe frefh, and, as it were, newly born from the waves ; whofe
wife was in fadt the univerfal mother, and, that the earth might foon be
repeopled, was early blelfed with numerous and flourifliing defcendants :
if we produce, theretore, an Indian king of divine birth, eminent for his
piety and beneficence, whofe (lory feems evidently to be that of Noah
difguifed by AJiatick fiiflion, we may fafely offer a conjecfture, that he
was alfo the fame perfonage with Saturn. This was Menu, or
Satyavrata, whofe pratronymick name was Vaivaswata, or child
of
238 ON THE GODS OF GREECE.
of the Sun ; and whom the Indians believed to have reigned over the
whole world in the earlieft age of their chronology, but to have refided
in the country of Dravira, on the coaft of the Eallern Indian Peninfula :
the following narrative of the principal event in his life I have literally
tranflated from the Bhdgavat ; and it is the fubjeft of the firfl: Purdna,
entitled that of the Matfya, or Fijh,
* Defiring the prcfervation of herds, and of Brdhmans, of genii and
* virtuous men, of the Vedas, of law, and of precious things, the lord
* of the univerfe afTumes many bodily fhapcsj but, though he pervades,
* like the air, a variety of beings, yet he is himfelf unvaried, fince he
* has no quality fubjedt to change. At the clofe of the laft Calpa^
* there was a general deftrudlion occafioned by the fleep of Brahma' j
* whence his creatures in different worlds were drowned in a vaft
* ocean. Brahma', being inclined to llumber, defiring repofe after
* a lapfe of ages, the ftrong demon Hayagri'va came near him, and
* ftole the Vedas, which had flowed from his lips. When Heri, the
' preferver of the univerfe, difcovered this deed of the Prince of
* Ddnavas, he took the fhape of a minute fifh, c-A\t.6.fdp'hari. A holy
* king, named Satyavrata, then reigned; a fervant of the fpirit,
* which moved on the waves, and fo devout, that water was his only
' fuftenance. He was the child of the Sun, and, in the prefent Calpa,
* is inverted by Nara'yan in the office of Menu, by the name of
* Sra'ddhade'va, or the God of Obfequies. One day, as he was
* making a libation in the river Cfitamald, and held water in the palm
* of his hand, he perceived a fmall fifli moving in it. The king of
* Dravira immediately dropped the fifh into the river together with
' the water, which he had taken from it ; when the fap'/iari thus
* pathetically addreffed the benevolent monarch : " How canft thou,
" O king, who (howeft affe«flion to the opprefl'ed, leave me in this
** river-water, where I am too weak to refill the monflers of the ftream,
" who
ITALY, AND INDIA. 239
* who fill me with dread ?" He, not knowing who had aflumed the
form of a fifh, applied his mind to the prcfervation of the fap'han,
both from good nature and from regard to his own foul j and, having
heard its very fuppliant addrefs, he kindly placed it under his pro-
tedlion in a fmall vafe full of water ; but, in a fingle night, its bulk
was fo increafed, that it could not be contained in the jar, and thus
again addreffed the illuftrious Prince : " I am not pleafed with living
^ miferably in this little vafe ; make me a krge manfion, where I mav
' dwell in comfort." The king, removing it thence, placed it in the
water of a ciflern -, but it grew three cubits in lefs than fifty minutes,
and faid : " O king, it pleafes me not to ftay vainly in this narrow
' ciftern : fince thou haft granted me an afylum, give me a fpacious
' habitation." He then removed it, and placed it in a pool, where,
having ample fpace around its body, it became a fifh of confiderable
fize. " This abode, O king, is not convenient for me, wha muft
* fwim at large in the waters : exert thyfelf for my iafety j and remove
* me to a deep lake ;" Thus addrefi!ed, the piou& monarch threw
the fuppliant into a lake, and, when it grew of equal bulk with that
piece of water, he caft the vaft fifb into the fea. When the fifh was
thrown into the waves, he thus again fpoke to Satyavrata :
* here the horned fliarks, and other monfters of great ftrength will de-
' vour me ; thou fhouldft not, O valiant man, leave me in this
ocean." Thus repeatedly deluded by the fifh, who had addreffed him
with gentle words, the king faid : " who art thou, that beguileft
* me in that aflumed fhape ? Never before have I feen or heard of fo
* prodigious an inhabitant of the waters, who, like thee, hafl filled up,
* in a fingle day, a lake an hundred leagues in circumference. Surely,
'thou art Bhagavat, who appeareft before me j the great Heri,
* whofe dwelling was on the waves ; and who now, in compafilon to
* thy fervants, beareft the form of the natives of the deep. Salutation
* and praife to thee, O firft male, the lord of creation, of prcfervation,
" of
240 ON THE GODS OF GRB:ECE,
" of deftruftion ! Thou art the highefl objeft, O fupreme ruler, of us
*' thy adorers, who piouily feek thee. All thy delufive defcents in this
*' world give exiilence to various beings: yet I am anxious to know, for
" what caufe that fliape has been aflumed by thee. Let me not, O
*' lotos-eyed, approach in vain the feet of a deity, whofe perfedt
♦' benevolence has been extended to all; when thou hafl fliewn us to
" our amazement the appearance of other bodies, not in reality
" exifling, but fucceflively exhibited." The lord of the univerfe,
* loving the pious man, who thus implored him, and intending to
* preferve him from the fea of deftrudiion, caufed by the depravity
* of the age, thus told him how he was to aft. " In feven days from
" the prelent time, O thou tamer of enemies, the three worlds will be
" plunged in an ocean of death j but, in the midll of the deftroying
♦* waves, a large veffel, fent by me for thy ufe, fliall ftand before thee.
" Then flialt thou take all medicinal herbs, all the variety of feeds j
" and, accompanied by feven Saints, encircled by pairs of all brute
" animals, thou fhalt enter the fpacious ark and continue in it, fecure
" from the flood on one immenfe ocean without light, except the
" radiance of thy holy companions. When the fliip fhall be agitated by
" an impetuous wind, thou fhalt faften it with a large fea-ferpent on my
" horn ; for I will be near thee : drawing the veffel, with thee and thy
" attendants, I will remain on the ocean, O chief of men, until a night
" of Brahma' fliall be completely ended. Thou flialt then know my
" true greatnefs, rightly named the fupreme Godhead ; by my favour,
" all thy queflions ihall be anfwered, and thy mind abundantly inffrudt-
" ed." Heri, having thus dired:ed the monarch, difappeared ; and
* Satyavrata humbly waited for the time, which the ruler of our
* fenfes had appointed. The pious king, have fcattered towards the
* Eail: the pointed blades of the grafs darbha, and turning his face to-
* wards the North, fate meditating on the feet of the God, who had
' borne the form of a fifh. The fea, overwhelming its fliores, deluged
* the
ITALY, AND INDIA. 241
c the whole earth; and it was foon perceived to be augmented by
* fhowers from immenfe clouds. He, flill meditating on the command
' of Bhagavat, faw the veflel advancing, and entered it with the
' chiefs of Brdhmans, having carried into it the medicinal creepers and
' conformed to the diredlions of Heri. The faints thus addrefled him :
" O king, meditate on Ce'sava ; who will, furely, deliver us from
" this danger, and grant us profperity." The God, being invoked by.
. * the monarch, appeared again diftincftly on the vail; ocean in the form
* of a fifli, blazing like gold, extending a million of leagues, with one
* flupendoiis horn ; on which the king, as he had before been com-
* manded by Heri, tied the fliip with a cable made of a vaft fer-
* pent, and, happy in his prefervation, flood praifing the deftroyer of
' Madhu. When the monarch had iinifhed his hymn, the primeval
* male, Bhagavat, who watched for his fafety on the great expanfe
* of water, fpoke aloud to his own divine eflence, pronouncing a facred
' Purana, which contained the rules of the Sdnchya philofophy : but
* it was an infinite myllery to be concealed within the breafl of Saty-
* AVRATA ; who, fitting in the veflel with the faints, heard the prin-
* ciple of the foul, the Eternal Being, proclaimed by the preferving
* power. Then Heri, rifing together with Brahma', from the
« deftrudlive deluge, which was abated. Hew the demon Hayagri'va,
* and recovered the facred books. Satyavrata, infl:ru6ted in all
* divine and liuman knowledge, was appointed in the prefent Calpa, by
' the favour of Vishnu, the feventh Me n u, furnamed Vaivaswata:
' but the appearance of a horned fifli to the religious monarch was
* Maya, or delufion ; and he, who fliall devoutly hear this important
* allegorical xiarrative, will be delivered from the bondage of fin.'
This epitome of the firfl Indian Hiftory, that is now extant, I'.ppears
to me very curious and very important ; for the ftory, though whimfi-
cally drclfed up in the form of an allegory, feems to prove a primeval
VOL. I. I, L tradition
242 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
tradition in this country of the univ erf al deluge defcribed by Moses, and
fixes confequently the time, when the genuine Hindu Chronology adlu-
ally begins. We find, it is true, in the Piirdn, from which the narra-
tive is extr^dled, another deluge which happened towards the clofe of
the third :ige, when Yudhist'hir was labouring under the perfecution
of his inveterate foe Duryo'dhan, and when Crishna, who had
recently become incarnate for the purpofe of fuccouring the pious and
of deftroying the wicked, was performing wonders in the country of
Mat'hura ; but the fecond flood was merely local and intended only to
afFeft the people of Fraja: they, it feems, had offended Indra, the God
of the firmament, by their enthufiafticlc adoration of the wonderful child,
** who lifted up the mountain Goverdhena, as if it had been a flower,
" and, by flieltering all the herdfmen and fhepherdefles from the fl:orm,
" convinced Indra of his fupremacy." That the Satya, or (if we
may venture fo to call it) the Saturnian, age was in truth the age of the
general flood, will appear from a clofe examination of the ten Avatars,
or Defcents, of the deity in his capacity of preferver ; lince of the four,
which are declared to have happened in the Satya yiig, the three fir Jl
apparently relate to fome flupendous convulfion of our globe from
the fountains of the deep, and the fourth exhibits the miraculous
punifliment of pride and impiety : firft, as we have fliown, there was,
in the opinion of the Hindus^ an interpolition of Providence to pre-
ferve a devout perfon and his family (for all the Pandits agree, that his
wife, though not named, mufl: be underftood to have been fiived with
him) from an inundation, by which all the wicked were deflroyed j
next, the power of the deity defcends in the form of a Boar, the fymbol
of ftrength, to draw up and fupport on his tiiflcs the whole earth, which
had been funk beneath tlie ocean ; thirdly, the fame power is repre-
fented as a torto/fe fuftaining the globe, which had been convulfed by
the violent affaults of demons, while the Gods churned the fea with the
mountain Mandar, and forced it to difgorge the facred things and ani-
mals,
ITALY, AND INDIA. 2 13
mals, together with the water of life, which it had fwallowed: thefe
three ftories relate, I think, to the fame event, fliadovved by a mora),
a metaphyfical, and an aftronomical, allegory j and all three feem con-
ne£ted with the hieroglyphical fculptures of the old Egyptians. The
fourth Avatar was a hon ifluing from a burfling column of marble to
devour a blafpheming monarch, who would otherwife have flain his re-
ligious fon ; and of the remaining fix, not one has the leaft relation to
a deluge : the three, which are afcribed to the Tretdyug, when tyranny
and irreligion are faid to have been introduced, were ordained for the
overthrow of Tyrants, or, their natural types. Giants with a thoufand
arms formed for the mofh extenfive oppreffion ; and, in the Dwdparyug,
tlie incarnation of Crishna was partly for a fimilar purpofe, and partly
with a view to thin the world of unjuft and impious men, who had
multiplied in that age, and began to fwarm on the approach of the
Caliyug, or the age of contention and bafenefs. As to Buddha, he
feems to have been a reformer of the dodrines contained in the Vedas;
and, though his good nature led him to cenfure thofe ancient books,
becaufe they enjoined facrifices of cattle, yet he is admitted as the
ninth Avatar even by the Brdhmam of Cdsi, and his praifes are fung
by the poet Jayade'va: his charafter is in many refpedis very ex-
trarodinary ; but, as an account of it belongs rather to Hiftory than
to Mythology, it is referved for another diflertation.. The tenth Avatar ^
we" are told, is yet to come,, and is expe^fted to appear mounted (like
the crowned conqueror in the Apocalyps) on a white horfe, with a
cimeter blazing like a comet to mow down all incorrigible and impeni-
tent offenders, who (hall then be on earth.
Thefe four Tugs have fo apparent an affinity with the Grecian and
Roman ages, that one origin may be naturally affigned to both fyflems :
the finl: in botli is diftinguifhed as abounding in gold, though Satya
mean truth and probity, which were found, if ever, in the times im-
mediately
244 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
mediately following fo tremendous an exertion of the divine power as
the deftrudion of mankind by a general deluge ; the next is charac-
terized by filvery and the third, by copper j though their ufual names
allude to proportions imagined in each between vice and virtue : the
prefent, or earthen, age feems more properly difcriminated than by iron,
as in ancient Europe ; fince that metal is not bafer or lefs ufeful, though
more common in our times and confequently lefs precious, than copper;
while mere earth conveys an idea of the loweft degradation. We may
here obferve, that the true Hiftory of the World feems obvioully divifible
miofour ages or periods ; which may be called, firll, the Diluvian, or
pureft age ; namely, the times preceding the deluge, and thofe lucceed-
ing'it till the mad introdudlion oi \<lo\-MYy zt Babel ; next, the Patri-
archal, or pure, age; in which, indeed, there were mighty hunters of
beafts and of men, from the rife of patriarchs in the family of Sem to
the fimultaneous ellablifliment of great Empires by the defcendants of
his brother Ha'm ; thirdly, the Mofaick, or lefs pure, age j from the
legation of Moses, and during the time, when his ordinances were
comparatively well-obferved and uncorrupted ; laftly, the Prophetical, or
impure, age, beginning with the vehement warnings given by the Pro-
phets to aportate Kings and degenerate nations, but Hill fubfilling and
to fubfift, until all genuine prophecies fhall be fully accompli (lied. The
duration of the Hiftorical ages muft needs be very unequal and difpropor-
tionate ; while that of the Indian Yugs is dilpofed fo regularly and arti-
ficially, that it cannot be admitted as natural or probable : men do not
become reprobate in a geometrical progrelTion or at the termination of
regular periods ; yet fo well-proportioned are the Yugs, that even the
length of human life is diminirtied, as they advance, from an hundred
thouiand years in a fubdecuple ratio; and, as the number of principal
Avatars in each decreafes arithmetically from lour, fo the number of
years in each decreafes geometrically, and all together conflitute the ex-
travagant fum of four million three hundred and twenty thoufand years,
which
ITALY, AND INDIA. 245
which aggregate, multiplied by feventy-one, is the period, in which
every Menu is believed to prefide over the world. Such a period, one
might conceive, would have fatisfied Archytas, the meafurer of fea
and earth and the numberer of their fandsf or Archimedes, who invented
a notation, that was capable of expreffing the number of them ; but the
comprehenfive mind of an Indian Chronologift has no limits ; and the
reigns of fourteen Menus are only a fingle day of Brahma', fifty of
which days have elapfed, according to the Hindus, from the time of the
Creation : that all this puerility, as it feems at firil view, may be only
an aftronomical riddle, and allude to the apparent revolution of the fixed
ftars, of which the Brdhmans made a myftery, I readily admit, and am
even inclined to believe ; but io technical an arrangement excludes all
idea of ferious Hiflory. I am fenfible, how much thefe remarks will
offend the warm advocates for Indian antiquity; but we mufl: not facri-
fice truth to a bafe fear of giving offence : that the Vedas were adlually
written before the flood, I fliall never believe ; nor can we infer from
the preceding ftory, that the learned Hindus believe it ; for the allego-
rical flumber of Brahma' and the theft of the facred books mean only,
in fimpler language, that the human race was become corrupt ; but that
the Kdas are very ancient, and far older than other Sanfcrit compofi-
tions, I will venture to affert from my own examination of them, and
a comparlfon of their llyle with that of the Purdns and the Dherma
Sdjira. A fimilar comparifon juftifies me in pronouncing, that the
excellent law-book afcribed to Swa'yambhuva Menu, though not
even pretended to have been written by him, is more ancient than the
Bha'gavat ; but that it was compofed in the firft age of the world,
the Brdhmans would find it hard to perfuade me ; and the date, wliich
has been alligned to it, does not appear in either of the two copies, which
I poffefs, or in any other, that has been collated for me : in fa<fl: the fup-
pofed date is comprized in a verfe, which flatly contradidls the work
itfelf ; for it was not Menu who compofed the fyflem of law, by the
command
246 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
command of his father Brahma', but a holy perfonage or demigod,,
named Bhrigu, who revealed to men what Menu had delivered at the
requeft of him and other faints or patriarchs. In the Mdnava Saf-
tra, to conclude this digreflion, the meafure is fo uniform and melo-
dious, and the ftyle fo perfeftly S/infcn't, or Polijhed, that the book mufl
be more modern than the fcriptures of Moses, in which the iimplicity,
or rather nakednefs, of the Hebrew dialeft, metre, and ftyle, muft con-
vince every unbiafled man of their fuperior antiquity.
I leave etymologifts, who decide every thing, to decide whether the
word Menu, or, in the nominative cafe. Menus, has any connexion
with Minos, the Lawgiver, and fuppofed fon of Jove : the Cretans^
according to Diodorus of SicUyy ufed to feign, that moft of the great
men, who had been deified, in return for the benefits which they had.
conferred on mankind, were born in their ifland ; and hence a doubt
may be raifed, whether Minos was really a Cretan.. The Indian legi-
flator v/as the firft, not the feventh. Menu, or Satyavrata, whom I
fuppofe to be the Saturn oi Italy : part of Saturn's charafter, in-
deed, was that of a great lawgiver.
Qui genus indocile ac difperfum montibus altis
Compofuit, lege/que dedit,
and, we may fufpedl, that all the fourteen Menus are reducible to one^,
who was called Nuh by the Arabs, and probably by the Hebrews^
though we have difguifed his name by an improper pronunciation of it.
Some near relation between the feventh Menu and the Grecian Minos
may be inferred from the Angular charafter of the Hindu God, Yama,
who was alfo a child of the Sun, and thence named Vaivaswata: he
had too the fame title with his brother, Sra'dduade'va; another of
his titles was Dhermara'ja, or King ofjujiice; and a third, Pitri-
PETI,
ITALY, AND INDIA. 247
PETF, or "Lord of the Patriarchs ; but he is chiefly diflinguilhed 2& judge
of departed fouls ; for the Hindus believe, that, when a foul leaves its
body, it immediately repairs to Tamapur, or the city of Yama, where
it receives a jufl fentence from him, and either afcends to Siverga,
or the firfl heaven, or is driven down to Narac, the region of ferpents,
or aflumes on earth the form of fome animal, unlefs its offence had been
fuch, that it ought to be condenmed to a vegetable, or even to a mineral,
prifon. Another of his names is very remarkable : I mean that of
Ca'la, or time, the idea of which is intimately blended with the cha-
radlers of Saturn and of Noah j for the name Cronos has a manifell
affinity with the word chronos, and a learned follower of Zera'tusht
affures me, that, in the books, which the Behdins hold iacred, mention
is made of an univerfal inundation, there named the deluge of Time.
It "having been occafionally obferved, that Ceres was the poetical
daughter of Saturn, we cannot clofe this head without adding, that the
Hindus alfo have their Goddefs of Ahundatice, whom they ufually call
Lacshmi', and whom they confider as the daughter (not of Menu,
but) of Bhrigu, by whom the firft Code of facred ordinances was pro-
mulgated: flie is alfo named Pedma' and Camala' from the facred
Lotos or Nymphcea ; but her mod remarkable name is Sri', or, in the
firft cafe, Sri's, which has a refemblance to the Latin, and meansy^r-
tune ov profperity. It may be contended, that, although Lacshmi' may
be figuratively called the Ceres of Hindufuin, yet any two or more
idolatrous nations, who fubfifted by agriculture, might naturally con-
ceive a Deity to prefide over their labours, without having the leaft in-
tercourfe with each other; but no reafon appears, why two nations
fhould concur in fuppofing that Deity to be a female: one at leaft of
them would be more likely to imagine, that the Earth was a Goddefs,
and that the God of abundance rendered her fertile. Befides, in very
ancient temples near Gaya, we fee images of Lacshmi', with full
breafts
248 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
breafts and a cord twifted under her arm like a horti of plenty, which
look very much like the old Grecian and Roman figures of Ceres.
The fable of Saturn having been thus analyfed, let us proceed to
his defcendents ; and begin, as the Poet advifes, with Jupiter, whofe
fupremacy, thunder, and libertinifm every boy learns from Ovidj while
his great offices of Creator, Preferver, and Deflroyer, are not generally
confidered in the fyftems of European mythology. > The Romans had, as
we have before obferved, many Jupiters, one of whom was only the
Firmament perfonified, as Ennius clearly exprefTes it:
Afpice hoc fublime candens, quem invocant omnes "Jovem.
This Jupiter or Diespiter is the Indian God of the vifible heavens,
called Indra, or the King, and Divespetir, or Lord of the Sky, who
has alfo the charadler of the Roman Genius, or Chief of the good
fpirits ; but moft of his epithets in Sanfcrit are the llime with thofe of
the Ennian Jove. His confort is named Sachi'; his celeftial city,
Amardvatl ; his palace, Vaijayanta ; his garden, N'andana ; his chief
^\^^\i-x\\\.y Airdvat ', his charioteer, Ma'tali ; and his weapon, /^<7/>/7,
or the thunderbolt : he is the regent of winds and fhowers, and, though
the Eaft is peculiarly under his care, yet his Olympus is Meru, or the
north pole allegorically reprefented as a mountain of gold and gems.
With all his power he is confidered as a fubordinate Deity, and far in-
ferior to the Indian Triad, Brahma', Vishnu, and Maha'deva or
Siva, who are ilirct forms of one and the fame Godhead: thus the prin-
cipal divinity of the Greeks and Latins, whom they called Zeus and
Jupiter with irregular inflexions Dios and Jovis, was not merely
Fulminator, tlie Thunderer, but, like the deftroying power of India,
Magnus Divus, Ultor, Genitor ; like the preferving power.
Conservator, Soter, Opitulus, Altor, Ruminus, and, like the
creating
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ITALY, AND INDIA, 249
creating power, the Giver of Life; an attribute, which I mention here
on the authority of Cornutus, a confummate mailer of mythological
learning. We are advifed by Plato himfelf to fearch for the roots of
Greek words in fome barbarous, that is, foreign, foil ; but, fince I look
upon etymological conjedtures as a weak bafis for hiftorical inquiries, I
hardly dare fuggeft, that Zev, Siv, and Jov, are the fame fyllable dif-
ferently pronounced : it muft, however be admitted, that the Greeks
having no palatial fgma, like that of the Indians^ might have exprelfed
it by their zeta, and that the initial letters of zugon znd j'ugum are (a$
the inftance proves) eafily interchangeable.
Let us now defcend, from thefe general and introductory remarks, to
fome particular obfervations on the refemblance of Zeus or Jupiter to
the triple divinity Vishnu, Siva, Brahma -, for that is the order, in
which they are expreffed by the letters A, U, and M, which coalefcc
and form the myftical word O'M ; a word, which never efcapes the
lips of a pious Hindu, who meditates on it in filence : whether the
Egyptian ON, which is commonly fuppofed to mean the Sun, be the
Sanfcrit monofyllable, I leave others to determine. It muft always be
remembered, that the learned Indians, as they are inftrudted by their
own books, in truth acknowledge only One Supreme Being, whom
they call Brahme, or the great one in the neuter gender: they
believe his EfTence to be infinitely removed from the comprehenfion of
any mind but his own ; and they fuppofe him to manifeft his power by
the operation of his divine fpirit, whom they name Vishnu, the Per-
vader, and Na'ra'YAN, or Moving on the waters, both in the mafcu-
line gender, whence he is often denominated the Firji Male ; and by
this power they believe, that the whole order of nature is preferved
and fupported; but the Veddntis, unable to form a diftindt idea of
brute matter independent of mind, or to conceive that the work of Su-
preme Goodnefs was left a moment to itfelf, imagine that the Deity is
VOL. I. MM ever
250 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
ever prefent to his work, and conftantly fupports a feries of perceptions,
which, in one fenfe, they call ilhifory, though they cannot but admit
the reality of all created forms, as far as the happinefs of creatures can
be affedled by them. When they confider the divine power exerted in
creating, or in giving exiftence to that which exifted not before, they
called the deity Brahma' in the mufculine gender alfo ; and, when
they view him in the light of Dejiroyer, or rather Changer of forms,
they give him a thoufand names, of which Siva, i'sa or i'swara,
RuDRA, Hara, Sambhu, and Maha'de'va or Mahe'sa, are the
moft common. The firft operations of thefe three Powers are varioufly
defcribed in the different Purdnas by a number of allegories, and from
them we may deduce the Ionian Philofophy oi primeval water, the doc-
trine of the Mundane Egg, and the veneration paid to the Nymphcea, or
Lotos, which was anciently revered in Egypt, as it is at prefent in Hin-
diijldn, Tibet, and Nepal: the Tibetians ■slvq faid to embellifh their temples
and altars with it, and a native of Nepal made proftrations before it on
entering my ftudy, where the fine plant and beautiful flowers lay for
examination. Mr. Holwel, in explaining his firft plate, fuppofes
Brahma' to be floating on a leaf of to^/ in the midft of the abyfs ; but
it was manifellly intended by a bad painter for a lotos-leaf or for that of
the Indian fig-tree ; nor is the fpecies of pepper, known in Bengal by
the name of Tdmbula, and on the Coafl: of Malabar by that of betel,
held facred, as he afferts, by the Hindus, or necefl"arily cultivated under
the infpedlion of Brdhmans ; though, as the vines arc tender, all the
plantations of them are carefully fecured, and ought to be cultivated by
a particular tribe of Sudras, who are thence called Tdmbults.
That water was the primitive element and firft work of the Creative
Power, is the uniform opinion of the Indian Philofophcrs j but, as they
give fo particular an account of the general deluge and of the Creation,
it can never be admitted, that their whole fyfliem arofc from traditions
concerning
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<i6l.
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ITALY. AND INDIA. 25 1
concerning the flood only, and muft appear indubitable, that their doc-
trine is in part borrowed from the opening of Birds)t or Gcnejis, than
which a fublimer paffage, from the firft word to the laft, never flowed
or will flow from any human pen : ** In the beginning God created the
" heavens and the earth. — And the earth was void and wafl:e, and dark-
" nefs was On the face of the deep, and the Spirit of God moved upon
" the face of the waters ; and God faid : Let Light be — and Light
*' was." The fublimity of this pafllige is confiderably diminiflied by
the Indian paraphrafe of it, with which Menu, the fon of Brahma',
begins his addrefs to the fages, who confulted him on the formation of
the univerfe : " This world, fays he, was all darknefs, undifcernible,
" undiftinguifliable, altogether as in a profound fleep ; till the felf-ex-
♦* iftient invifible God, making it manifefl: with five elements and other
*' glorious forms, perfedlly difpelled the gloom. He, defiring to raife
*' up various creatures by an emanation from his own glory, firfl: created
*' the waters, and imprefled them with a power of motion : by that
*' power was produced a golden Egg, blazing like a thoufand funs, in
*' which was born Brahma', felf-exifting, the great parent of all rational
** beings. The waters are called ndra, fince they are the ofl'spring of
** Nera (or i'swara); and thence was Na'ra'yana named, becaufe
" his firfl: ay ana, or moving, was on them.
" That which is, the invifible caufe, eternal, felf-exifl:ing, but
" unperceived, becoming mafculine from neuter, is celebrated among
** all creatures by the name of Brahma'. That God, having dwelled
" in the Egg, through revolving years, Himfelf meditating on Him-
*' felf, divided it into two equal parts j and from thofe halves formed
" the heavens and the earth, placing in the midfl: the fubtil ether,
" the eight points of the world, and the permanent receptacle of wa-
«« ters."
To
252 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
To this curious defcription, with which the Manava Sdjira begins, I
cannot refrain from fubjoining the four verfes, which are the text of the
Bhdgavat, and are believed to have been pronounced by the Supreme
Being to Brahma': the following verfion is moft fcrupuloufly literal*.
" Even I was even at firft, not any other thing ; that, which exifls,
" unperceived; fupreme : afterwards I am that which is j and he,
" who muft remain, am I.
" Except the First Cause, whatever may appear, and may not
" appear, in the mind, know that to be the mind's Ma'ya' (or Delu-
" Ji:nJ, as light, as darknefs.
*' As the great elements are in various beings, entering, yet not enter-
" ing (that is, pervading, not deftroying), thus am I in them, yet not
" in them.
" Even thus far may inquiry be made by him, who feeks to know
<' the principle of mind, in union and feparation, which muft be Every
" WHERE ALWAYS."
Wild and obfcure as thefe ancient verfes mufl: appear in a naked
verbal tranflation, it will perhaps be thought by many, that the poetry
or mythology of Greece or Italy afford no conceptions more awfully
magnificent : yet the brevity and fimplicity of the Mofaick dicftion are
unequalled.
As to the creation of the world, in the opinion of the Romans, Ovid,
who might naturally have been expeded to defcribe it with learning and
* See the Original, p. 206- Plate IV.
elegance,
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ITALY, AND INDIA. 253
jclegance, leaves us wholly in the dark, which of the Gods was the aSlor in
it: other Mythologifts are more explicit; and we may rely on the authority
of CoRNUTUS, that the old European heathens conlidered Jove (not the
fon of Saturn, but of the Ether, that is of an unknown parent) as the
great Life-giver, and Father of Gods and men ; to which may be added
the Orphean dodlrine, preferved by Proclus, that " the abyfs and em-
" pyreum, the earth and fea, the Gods and Goddefles, were produced
" by Zeus or Jupiter." In this characfter he correfponds with
Brahma' J and, perhaps, with that God of the Babylonians (if we can
rely on the accounts of their ancient religion), who, like Brahma', re-
duced the univerfe to order, and, like Brahma', loft his head, with the
blood of which new animals were inftantly formed : I allude to the
common ftory, the meaning of which I cannot difcover, that BrahxMa'
had five heads till one of them was cut off by Na R a'ya'n.
That, in another capacity, Jove was the Helper and Supporter of all,
we may colledl from his old Latin epithets, and from Cicero, who
informs us, that his ufual name is a contradlion of Juvans Pater ; an
etymology, which fliows the idea entertained of his charatfter, though
we may have fome doubt of its accuracy. Callimachus, we know,
addreffes him as the be/lower of all good, and of fecurity from grief; and,
fmce neither wealth without virtue, nor virtue without wealth, give com-
plete happinefs, he prays, like a wife poet, for both. An Indian prayer
for riches would be diredled to Lacshmi', the wife of Vishnu, fince
the Hindu GoddefTes are believed to be the powers of their refpedlive
lords: as to Cuve'ra, the Indian Plutus, one of whofe names in
Paulajlya, he is revered, indeed, as a magnificent Deity, refiding in the
palace of Alacd, or borne through the Iky in a fplendid car named Pujli-
paca, but is manifeflly fubordinate, like the other i&\&n Genii, to the
three principal Gods, or rather to the principal God confidered in three
capacities. As the foul of the world, or the pervading mind, fo finely
defcribed
254 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
defcribed by Virgil, we fee Jove reprefented by feveral Roman poets ;
and with great fublimity by Luc an in the known fpeech of Cato
concerning the Ammonian oracle, " Jupiter is, wherever we look,
" wherever we move." This is precifely the Indian idea of Vishnu,
according to the four verfes above exhibited, not that the Brahmam
imagine their male Divinity to be the dhine Ejfencc of the great one,
which they declare to be wholly incomprehenfible ; but, fince the power
of preferving created things by a fuperintending providence, belongs
eminently to the Godhead, they hold that power to exift tranfcendently
in the preferring member of the Triad, whom they fuppofe to be every
WHERE ALWAYS, not in fubftance, but in fpirit and energy: here,
however, I fpeak of the Vaijhnavas ; for the Saiva's afcribe a fort of pre-
eminence to Siva, whofe attributes are now to be concifely examined.
It was in the capacity of Avenger and Deflroyer, that Jove encoun-
tered and overthrew the Titans and Giants, whomTYPHON, Briareus,
TiTius, and the reft of their fraternity, led againft the God of Olym-
pus; to whom an Eagle brought lightning and thunderbolts during the
warfare : thus, in a fimilar conteft between Siva and the Daityas, or
children of DiTi, who frequently rebelled againft heaven, Brahma
is believed to have prefented the God of Deftrudlion with Jiery Jloafts,
One of the many poems, entitled Ramdyan, the laft book of which has
been tranllated into Italian, contains an extraordinary dialogue between
the crow Bhujlmnda, and a rational Eagle, named Garuda, who is
often painted with the face of a beautiful youth, and the body of an
imaginary bird ; and one of the eighteen Purdnas bears his name and
comprizes his whole hiftory. M. Sonnerat informs us, that Vishnu
is reprefented in fome places riding on the Garuda, which he fuppofes
to be the Pondicheri Eagle of Brisson, efpecially as the Brahmans of
the Coaft highly venerate that clafs of birds and provide food for num-
,bers of them at ftated hours : I rather conceive the Garuda to be a
fabulous
Vol. 1.
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ITALY, AND INDIA. 255
fabulous bird, but agree with him, that the Hindu God, who rides oa
it, refembles the ancient Jupiter. In the old temples at Gaya, Vish-
nu is either mounted on this poetical bird or attended by it together
with a little page ; but, left an etymologift fhould find Ganymed in
Garud, I muft obferve that the Sanfcrit word is pronounced Garura;
though I admit, that the Grecian and Indian ftories of the celeftial bird
and the page appear to have fome refemblance. As the Olympian
Jupiter fixed his Court and held his Councils on a lofty and brilliant
mountain, fo the appropriated feat of Maha'de'va, whom the Saiva's
confider as the Chief of the Deities, was mount Caildfa, every fplinter of
whofe rocks was an ineftimable gem : his terreftrial haunts are the fnowy
hills of Himalaya, or that branch of them to the Eaft of the Brahmapu-
tra, which has the name of Chandrajic'hara, or the Mountain of the
Moon. When, after all thefe circumftances, we learn that Siva is be-
lieved to have three eyes, whence he is named alfo Trilo chan, and
know from Pausanias, not only that Triophthalmos was an epithet of
Zeus, but that a ftatue of him had been found, fo early as the taking
of Troy, with a third eye in his forehead, as we fee him reprefented by
the Hindus, we muft conclude, that the identity of the two Gods falls
little fliort of being demonftrated.
•♦.
In the charadler of Dejiroyer alfo we may look upon this Indian Deity
as correfponding with the Stygian Jove, or Pluto j efpecially fince
Ca'li', or Time in the feminine gender, is a name of his confort, who
will appear hereafter to be Proserpine: indeed, if we can rely on a
Perfan tranflation of the Bhdgavat (for the original is not yet in my
poffefiion), the fovereign of Pdtdla, or the Infernal Regiojis, is the King
of Serpents, named Se'shana'ga ; for Crishna is there faid to have de-
fcended with his favourite Arjun to the feat of that formidable divinity,
from whom he inftantly obtained the favour, which he requefted, that
the fouls of a Brahman s fix fons, who had been flain in battle, might
reanimate
256 ON TKE GODS OF GREECE,
reanimate their refpedlive bodies ; and Se'shana'ga is thus defcribed :
" He had a gorgeous appearance, with a thoufand heads, and, on each
" of them, a crown fet with refplendent gems, one of which was larger
" and brighter than the reft ; his eyes gleamed like flaming torches ;
" but his neck, his tongues, and his body were black; the Ikirts of
" his habiliment were yellow, and a fparkling jewel hung in every one
" of his ears ; his arms were extended, and adorned with rich bracelets,
" and his hands bore the holy lliell, the radiated weapon, the mace for
" war, and the lotos," Thus Pi.uxo was often exhibited in painting
and fculpture with a diadem and fceptre ; but himfelf and his equipage
were of the blackefl: fliade.
There is yet another attribute of Maha'de'va, by which he is too
vilibly diftinguiflied in the drawings and temples of Bengal. To deftroy,
according to the Vedaniis of India, the SuJT s of Perfia., and many Phi-
lofophers of our European fchools, is only to generate and reproduce in
another form : hence the God of DeJiruBion is holden in this country to
prelide over Generation ; as a fymbol of which he rides on a white hull.
Can we doubt, that the loves and feats of Jupiter Genitor (not for-
getting the white bull oi Europa) and his extraordinary title of Lapis,
for which no fatisfa^lory reafon is commonly given, have a connexion
with the Indian Philofophy and Mythology ? As to the deity of Lamp"
Jacus, he was originally a mere fcare-crow, and ought not to have a
place in any mythological fyftem ; and, in regard to Bacchus, the
God of Vintage (between whofe a6ts and thofe of Jupiter we find, as
Bacon obferves, a wonderful affinity), his IthyphaUick images, meafures,
and ceremonies alluded probably to the fuppofed relation of Love and
Wine; unlefs we believe them to have belonged originally to Siva, one
of whofe names is Vdgis or Ba'gi's, and to have been afterwards im-
properly applied. Though, in an EfTay on the Gods oi India, where the
Brdhmam are politively forbidden to tafte fermented liquors, we can have
little
Vol.1.
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ITALY, AND INDIA. 257
little to do with Bacchus, as God of Wine, who was probably no more
than the imaginary Prefident over the vintage in Italy, Greece, and the
lower Afia, yet we muft not omit Sura'de'vi, the Goddefs of Wine,
who arofe, fay the Hindus, from the ocean, when it was churned with
the mountain Mandar: and this fable feems to indicate, that the India?is
came from a country, in which wine was anciently made and confidered
as a bleffing ; though the dangerous effedts of intemperance induced
their early legiflators to prohibit the ufe of all fpirituous liquors ; and it
were much to be wiflied, that fo wife a law had never been violated.
Here may be introduced the Jupiter Marinus, or Neptune, of the
Romans, as refembling Maha'de'va in his generative character; efpe-
cially as the Hindu God is the hulband of Bhava'ni, whofe relation to
the waters is evidently marked by her image being reftored to them at
the conclufion of her great feflival called Durgotfava : fhe is known
alfo to have attributes exadlly fimilar to thofe of Venus Marina, whofe
birth from the fea-foam and fplendid rife from the Conch, in which flie
had been cradled, have afforded fo many charming fubjedis to ancient
and modern artifts ; and it is very remarkable, that the Rembha' of
Indra's court, who feems to correfpond with the popular Venus, or
Goddefs of Beauty, was produced, according to the Indian Fabulifls,
from the froth of the churned ocean. The identity of the tris'ula and
the trident, the weapon of Siva and of Neptune, feems to eilablifh
this analogy ; and the veneration paid all over India to the large buc-
cinum, efpecially when it can be found with the fpiral line and mouth
turned from left to right, brings inftantly to our mind the mufick of
Triton. The Genius of Water is Varuna; but he, like the reft, is
far inferior to Mahe's'a, and even to Indra, who is the Prince of the
beneficent genii.
VOL. I. N N This
258 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
This way of confidering the Gods as individual fubflances, but as
diflind perfons in diftindt charadlers, is common to the European and
Indian fyftems; as well as the cuflom of giving the higheft of them the
greateft number of names : hence, not to repeat what has been faid of
Jupiter, came the triple capacity of Diana ; and hence her petition
in Callimachus, that flie might be polyonymous or many-titled. The
confort of Siva is more eminently marked by thefe diftimflions than
thofe of Brahma' or Vishnu: fhe refembles the Isis Myrionymos, to
whom an ancient marble, defcribed by Gruter, is dedicated; but her
leading names and charadlers are Pa rvati, Durga', Bhava'ni.
As the Mountain-born Goddefs, or Pa'rvati, fhe has many proper-
ties of the Olympian ]v no: her majeftick deportment, high fpirit, and
general attributes arc the fame; and we find her both on Mount Cailafa,
and at the banquets of the Deities, uniformly the companion of her
hufband. One circumftance in the parallel is extremely Angular : flie is
ufually attended by her fon Ca'rtice'ya, who rides on 2i peacock; zndy
in fome drawings, his own robe feems to be fpangled with eyes; to
which mull: be added that, in fome of her temples, a peacock, without
a rider, ftands near her image. Though Ca'rtice'ya, with his fix
faces and numerous eyes, bears fome refemblance to Argus, whom
Juno employed as her principal wardour, yet,_ as he is a Deity of the
fecond clafs, and the Commander of celeftial Armies, he feems clearly
to be the Orus of Egypt and the Mars of Italy : his name Scanda,
by which he is celebrated in one of the Purdnas, has a connexion, I am
perfuaded, with the old Secander of Perfia, whom the poets ridi-
culoufly confound v/ith the Macedonian.
The attributes of Durga', or Difficult of accefs, are alfo confpicuous
in the feftival above-mentioned, which is called by her name, and in
this
\ol 1
/m. ^238.
ITALY, AND INDIA. 25 g
this charadler flie refembles Minerva, not the peaceful inventrefs of
the fine and ufeful arts, but Pallas, armed with a helmet and fpear:
both reprefent heroick. Virtue, or Valour united with Wifdom; both
flew Demons and Giants with their own hands, and both protecfted the
wife and virtuous, who paid them due adoration. As Pallas, they
fay, takes her name from vibrating a lance, and ufually appears in com-
plete armour, thus Cur is, the old Latian word for a fpear, was one of
Juno's titles^ and fo, if Giraldus be corredt, was Hoplosmia, which
at Elis, it feems, meant a female drelTed in panoply or complete accoutre-
ments. The unarmed Minerva of the Romans apparently correfponds, as
patronefs of Science and Genius, with Sereswati, the wife of Brahma',
and the emblem of his principal Creative Power : both goddeffes have
given their names to celebrated grammatical works ; but the Sdrefivata
of Saru'pa'cha'rya is far more concife as well as more ufeful and
agreeable than the Minerva of Sanctius. The Minerva o^ Italy in-
vented thtjliite, and Sereswati prefides over melody : the protedtrefs
oi Athens was even, on the fame account, furnamed Musice'.
Many, learned Mythologifts, with Giraldus at their head, con-
fider the peaceful Minerva as the Isis of Egypt ; from whofe temple
at Sais a wonderful infcription is quoted by Plutarch, which has a
refemblance to the four Sajifcrit verfes above exhibited as the text of
the Bhagavat : " I am all, that hath been, and is, and fhall bej and my
" veil no mortal hath ever removed." For my part I have no doubt, that
the iswAR A and isi of the Hindus are the Osiris and Is is of the Egyptians;
though a diftinft eflayin the manner of Plutarch would be requifite in
order to demonftrate their identity : they mean, I conceive, the Powers of
Nature conlidered as Male and Female ; and Is is, like the other god-
deiTes, reprefents the adtive power of her lord, whofe eig/it forms, under
which he becomes vifible to man, were thus enumerated- by Ca'li-
da'SA near two thoufand years ago : " JVater was the firfl work of the
" Creator i
260 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
♦* Creator; and Fire receives the oblation of clarified butter, as the law
*' ordains ; the Sacrifice is performed with folemnity ; the tico Lights of
" heaven diftinguifh time ; the fubtil Ether, which is the vehicle of
" found, pervades the univerfe ; the Earth is the natural parent of all
" increafe ; and by j4ir all things breathing are animated: may is a,
" the power propitioufly apparent in thefe eight forms, blefs and fuftain
•' you !" The five elements, therefore, as well as the Sun and Moon,
are coniidered as is a or' the Ruler, from which word isi may be
regularly formed, though isa'ni be the ufual name of his aBive Power,
adored as the Goddefs of Nature. I have not yet found in Sajifcrit the
wild, though poetical, tale of lo ; but am perfuaded, that, by means
of the Purdnas, v/e fliall in time difcover all the learning of the Egyp-
tians without decyphering their hieroglyphicks : the bull of iswara
feems to be Apis, or Ap, as he is more corredlly named in the true
reading of a paflage in Jeremiah j and, if the veneration ihown both
in Tibet and India to fo amiable and ufeful a quadruped as the Cow, to-
gether with the regeneration of the Lama himfelf, have not fome affini-
ty with the religion oi Egypt and the idolatry oi Ifrael, we muft at leaft
allow that circumftances have wonderfully coincided. Bhava'ni now
demands our attention; and in this character I fuppofe the wife of
Maha'de'va to be as well the Juno Cinxia or Lucina of the Roma?is
(called alfo by them Diana Sohizona, and by the Greeks Ilithyia) as
Venus herfelf; not the Idalian queen of laughter and jollity, who, with
her Nymphs and Graces, was the beautiful child of poetical imagination,
and anfwers to thelndian Rembha' with her celeftial train oi Apjaras,
or damfels of paradife; but Venus Urania, fo luxuriantly painted by
Lucretius, and fo properly invoked by him at the opening of a poem
on nature; Venus, prefiding over generation, and, on that account, ex-
hibited fometimes of both fexes (an union very common in the Indian
fculptures), as in her bearded flatue at Rome, in the images perhaps called
Jlermathena, and in thofe figures of her, which had the form of a coni-
cal
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ITALY, AND INDIA. 26 1
cal 7mrble; " for the reafon of which figure we are left, fays Tacitus,
" in the dark :" the reafon appears too clearly in the temples and paint-
ings of Hindujlan ; where it never feems to have entered the heads of
the legiflators or people that any thing natural could be offenfively ob-
fcene ; a lingularity, which pervades all their writings and converfation,
but is no proof of depravity in their morals. Both Plato and Cicero
fpeak of Eros, or the Heavenly Cupid, as the fon of Venus and Jupi-
ter j which proves, that the monarch of Olympus and the Goddefs of
Fecundity were conneifted as Maha'de'va and Bhava'ni : the God
Ca'ma, indeed, had Ma'ya' and Casyapa, or Uranus, for his parents,
at leafl according to the Mythologifts of Cafimir ; but, in moil refpeds,
he feems the twin-brother of Cupid with richer and more lively appen-
dages. One of his many epithets is Dipaca, the Lifamer, which is
erroneoufly written Dipuc -, and I am now convinced, that the fort of
refemblance, which has been obferved between his Latin and Sanfcrit
names, is accidental : in each name the three firil letters are the root, and
between them there is no affinity. Whether any Mythological connec-
tion fubfifted between the amaracus, with the fragrant leaves of which
Hymen bound his temples, and the tulasi of India, muft be left unde-
termined : the botanical relation of the two plants (if amaracus be pro-
perly tranflated marjoram) is extremely near.
One of the mofl remarkable ceremonies, in the feftival of the Indian
Goddefs, is that before-mentioned of carting her image into the river :
the Pandits, of whom I inquired concerned its origin and import, an-
fwered, " that it was prefcribed by the Feda, they knew not why ;" but
this cuftom has, I conceive, a relation to the dodlrine, that water is a
form of iswARA, and confequently of isa'ni, who is even reprefented
by fome as the patronefs of that element, to which her figure is reftored,
after having received all due honours on earth, which is confidered as
another Jorm of the God of Nature, though fubfequent, in the order of
Creation,
2(32 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
Creation, to the primeval fluid. There feems no deciflve proof of one
original fyftem among idolatrous nations in the worfliip of river-p-ods
and river-goddeffes, nor in the homage paid to their ftrcams, and the
ideas of purification annexed to them : fince Greeks, Italians, Egyptians,
and Hindus might (without any communication with each other) have
adored the feveral divinities of their great rivers, from which they de-
rived pleafure, health, and abundance. The notion of Dodlor Mus-
GRAVE, that large rivers were fuppofed, from their flrength and rapidi-
ty, to be condudted by Gods, while .rivulets only were protedled by fe-
male deities, is, like mofl other notions of Gi'ammarians on the genders
of nouns, overthrown by fadls. Moft of the great Indian rivers are
feminine ; and the three goddelTes of the waters, whom the Hindus
chiefly venerate, are Ganga', who fprang, like armed Pallas, from
the head of the hidian Jove ; Yamuna',, daughter of the Sun, and
Sereswati: all three meet at Prayhga thence called I'riveni, or the
three plaited locks ; but Sereswati, according to the popular belief,
finks under ground, and rifes at another Triveni near Hugli, where fhe
rejoins her beloved Ganga'. The Brahmaputra is, indeed, a male
river; and, as his name fignifies the Son of Brahma', I thence took
occafion to feign that he was married to Ganga', though I have not
yet feen any mention of him, as a God, in the Sanfcrit books.
Two incarnate deities of the firft rank, Ra'ma and Crishna, mull
now be introduced, and their feveral attributes diftinftly explained. The
firft of them, I believe, was the Dionysos of the Greeks, whom they
named Bromius, without knowing why, and Bugenes, when they
reprefented him horned, as well as Lyaios and Eleutkerios, the
Deliverer, and Triambos or Dithyrambos, the Triumphant: moft
of thofe titles were adopted by the Romans, by whom he was called
Brum A, Tauriformis, Liber, Triumphus; and both nations had
records or traditionary accounts of his giving laws to men and deciding
their
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ITALY, AND INDIA. 263
their contefts, of his improving navigation and commerce, and, what
may appear yet more obfervable, of his conquering India and other
countries with an army of Satyrs, commanded by no lefs a perfonage
than Pan j whom LiliusGiraldus, on what authority I know not,
aflerts to have refided in Iberh, " when he had returned, fays the learn-
" ed Mythologift, from the Indian war, in which he accompanied Bac-
" CHUS." It were fuperfluous in a mere eflay, to run any length in the
parallel between this European God and the fovereign of Ayodhya, whom
the Hindus believe to have been an appearance on earth of the Preferv-
ing Power -, to have been a Conqueror of the higheft renown, and the
Deliverer of nations from tyrants, as well as of his confort Sir A' from
the giant Ra'van, king of Lanca, and to have commanded in chief a
numerous and intrepid race of thofe large Monkeys, which our natu-
ralifts, or fome of them, have denominated Indian Satyrs : his General,
the Prince of Satyrs, was named Hanumat, or loith high cheek-bones ;
and, with workmen of fuch agility, he foon raifed a bridge of rocks over
the fea, part of which, fay the Hindus, yet remains ; and it is, proba-
bly, the feries of rocks, to which the Mufelmans or the Portuguefe have
given the foohOi name of Adam's (it fhould be called Ra'ma's) bridge.
Might not this army of Satyrs have been only a race of mountaineers,
whom Ra'ma, if fuch a monarch ever exifted, had civilized? However
that may be, the large breed of Indian Apes is at this moment held in
high veneration by the Hindus, and fed with devotion by the Brdhmans,
who feem, in two or three places on the banks of the Ganges, to have
a regular endowment for the fupport of them : they live in tribes of
three or four hundred, are wonderfully gentle (I fpeak as an eye-wit-
nefs), and appear to have fome kind of order and fubordination in their
little fylvan polity. We muft not omit, that the father of Hanumat
was the God of Wind, named Pavan, one of the eight Genii j and,
as Pan improved the pipe by adding fix reeds, and " played exquifitely
" on the cithern a few moments after his birth," fo one of the four fyf-
tems
2(54 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
tems of Indian mufick bears the name of Hanumat, or Hanuma'n
in the nominative, as its inventor, and is now in general eftimation.
The war of Lanca is dramatically reprefented at the feftival of
Ra'ma on the ninth day of the new moon of Chaitra ; and the drama
concludes (fays Holwel, who had often ictn it) with an exhibition
of the fire-ordeal, by which the vidlor's wife Sit a' gave proof of her
connubial fidelity : " the dialogue, he adds, is taken from one of the
Eighteen holy books," meaning, I fuppofe, the Purdnas ; but the Hin-
dus have a great number of regular dramas at leaft two thoufand years
old, and among them are feveral very fine ones on the flory of Ra'ma.
The firft poet of the Hindus was the great Va'lmic, and his Rd?ndyan
is an Epic Poem on the fame fubjeft, which, in unity of adion, mag-
nificence of imagery, and elegance of ftyle, far furpaffes the learned and
elaborate work of Nonnus, entitled Diofiyjiaca, half of which, or twen-
ty-four books, I perufed with great eagernefs, when I was very young,
and ihould have travelled to the conclufion of it, if other purfuits had
not engaged me : I fliall never have leifure to compare the Dionyfiacks
with the Rdmdyan, but am confident, that an accurate comparifon of
the two poems would prove Dionysos and Ra'ma to have been the
fame perfon j and I incline to think, that he was Ra'ma, the fon of
Cu'sH, who might have eflablifhed the firfl: regular government in this
part of jyia. I had almofl forgotton, that Meros is faid by the Greeks to
have been a mountain oi India, on which their Dionysos was born, and
that Meru, though it generally means the north pole in the Indian
geo2;raphy, is alfo a mountain near the city of NaiJJoada or Nyfa, called
by the Grecian geographers Tiionyfopolis, and univerfally celebrated in the
Sanfcrit poems ; though the birth place of Ra'ma is fuppofed to have
been Ayiahya or Audh. That ancient city extended, if we believe the
Brd/imans, over a line of ten Yojans, or about forty miles, and the pre-
fent city of Lac'hnau, pronounced Lucnow, was only a lodge for one
of
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ITALY, AND INDIA. 265
of Its gates, called Lacpmanadwdra, or the gate of Lacshman, a bro-
ther of Ra'ma : M. SoNNERAT fuppofes Ayodhyd to have been Siani;
a moft erroneous and unfounded fuppofition ! which would have been
of little confequence, if he had not grounded an argument on it, that
Ra'ma was the fame perfon with Buddha, who muft have appeared
many centuries after the conquefl of Lancd.
The fecond great divinity, Crishna, pafied a life, according to the
Indians, of a mofl extraordinary and incomprehenfible nature. He was
the fon of De'vaci by Vasud'eva ; but his birth was concealed
through fear of the tyrant Cansa, to whom it had been predifted, that
a child born at that time in that family would deflroy him : he was fof-
tered, therefore, in Matliurd by an honefl herdfman, furnamed Anan-
DA, or Happy, and his amiable wife Yaso'da', who, like another
Pales, was conftantly occupied in her paftures and her dairy. In their
family were a multitude of young Gopa's or Cowherds, and beautiful
Gdpi's, or tnilkmaids, who were his playfellows during his infancy j and,
in his early youth, he felefted nine damfels as his favourites, with whom
he paffed his gay hours in dancing, fporting, and playing on his flute.
For the remarkable number of his Gdpi's I have no authority but a
whimfical pidlure, where nine girls are grouped in the form of an ele-
phant, on which he fits and pipes j and, unfortunately, the word nava
fignifies both nine and new or young ; fo that, in the following ftanza,
it may admit of two interpretations :
taran'ijdpuline navaballavi
perifadd faha celicutuhaldt .
drutavilamwitachdruvihdrinam
herimaham hridayena fadd vahe.
troL. I. o o *' I bear
t^i
266 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
" I bear in my bofom continually that God, who, for fportive recrea-
♦* tion with a train of nine (young) dairy-maids, dances gracefully, now
" quick now flow, on the fands julxieft by the Daughter of the Sun."
Both he and the three Ra'mas are defcribed as youths of perfeft
beauty ; but the princefles of Hindujidn, as well as the damfels of Nan-
da's farm, were paflionately in love with Crishna, who continues to
this hour the darlins: God of the Indian women. The fedl of Hifidus,
who adore him with enthuliaftick, and almoft exclufive, devotion, have
broached a dcxftrine, which they maintain with eagernefs, and which
feems general in thefe provinces ; that he was diftinft from all the
Avatars, who had only an an/a, or portion, of his divinity; while
Crishna was the per/on of Vishnu himfelf in a human form: hence
they confider the third Ra'ma, his elder brother, as the eighth Avatar
invefted with an emanation of his divine radiance ; and, in the principal
Sanfcrit dictionary, compiled about two thoufand years ago, Crish-
na, Va'sade'va, Go'vinda, and other names of the Shepherd God,
are intermixed with epithets of Na'ra'yan, or the Divine Spirit. All
the Avatars are painted with gemmed Ethiopian, or Parthian, coro-'
nets ; with rays encircling their heads -, jewels in their ears ; two neck-
laces, one ftraight, and one pendent on their bofoms with dropping
gems J garlands of well-difpofed many-coloured flowers, or collars of
pearls, hanging down below their waifl:s ; loofe mantles of golden tifllie
or dyed filk, embroidered on their hems with flowers, elegantly thrown
over one fhoulder, and folded, like ribbands, acrofs the breafl: ; with
bracelets too on one arm, and on each wrift : they are naked to
the waifl:s, and uniformly with dark azure flefh, in alluflon, probably,
to the tint of that primordial fluid, on which Na'ra'yan moved in the
beginning of time ; but their flcirts are bright yellow, the colour of the
curious pericarpium in the center of the water-lily, where Nature, as
Dr.
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ITALY, AND INDIA. 267
Dr. Murray obferves, in fome degree difclofes her fecreti, each feed
containing, before it germinates, a few perfedl leaves : they are fome-
times drawn with that flower in one hand ; a radiated elliptical ring,
ufed as a miflile weapon, in a fecond j the facred fhell, or left-handed
buccinum, in a third; and a mace or battle-ax, in a fourth; but Crish-
NA, when he appears, as he fometimes does appear, among the Ava-
tars, is more fplendidly decorated than any, and wears a rich garland of
fylvan flowers, whence he is named Vanama'li, as low as his ankles,
which are adorned with firings of pearls. Dark blue, approaching to
black, which is the meaning of the word CriJIma, is believed to have
been his complexion ; and hence the large bee of that colour is confe-
crated to him, and is often drawn fluttering over his head : that azure tint,
which approaches to blacknefs, is peculiar, as we have already remark-
ed, to Vishnu ; and hence, in the great refervoir or cifl:ern at Cdtmdn-
du the capital of Nepal, there is placed in a recumbent poflure a large
well-proportioned image oi blue marble, reprefenting Na'ra'yan float-
ing on the waters. But let us return to the actions of Crishna; who
was not lefs heroick, than lovely, and, when a boy, flew the terrible
ferpent Cdliya with a number of giants and monfliers : at a more ad-
vanced age, he put to death his cruel enemy Cansa ; and, having
taken under his protection the king Yudhisht'hir and the other Pan-
dus, who had been grievoufly opprefl'ed by the Ciirus, and their tyranni-
cal chief, he kindled the war defcribed in the great Epick Poem, entitled
the Mahabhdrat, at the profperous conclufion of which he returned to
his heavenly feat in Vaicont'ha^ having left the infl:ru6tions comprifed in
the Git a with his difconfolate friend Arjun, whofe grandfon became
fovereign di. India.
In this picflure it is impoflible not to difcover, at the firfl: glance, the
features of Apollo, furnamed Nomios, or the Pajioral, in Greece, and
Opifer in Italy; who fed the herds of Admetus, and flew the ferpent
Python;
268 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
Python ; a God amorous, beautiful, and warlike : the word Govinda
may be literally tranflated Nomios, as Cefava is Crinitus, or with Jine
hair; but whether Gopdla, or the herd/man, has any relation to
Apollo, let our Etymologifts determine. Colonel Vallancey, whofe
learned enquiries into the ancient literature of Ireland are highly inte-
refting, allures me, that CriJJma in Irip means the Sun j and we find
Apollo and Sol confidered by the Roman poets as the fame deity: I
am inclined, indeed, to believe, that not only Crishna or Vishnu,
but even Brahma' and Siva, when united, and expreffed by the myfti-
cal word O'M, were defigned by the firfl idolaters to reprefent the Solar
fire; but Phcebus, or the orb of the Sun perfonified, is adored by the
Indiatts as the God Su'rya, whence the fedl, who pay him particular
adoration, are called Sauras : their poets and painters defcribe his car as
drawn by feven green horfes, preceded by Arun, or the Dawn, who
afts as his charioteer, and followed by thoufands of Genii worfliipping
him and modulating his praifes. He has a multitude of names, and
among them twelve epithets or titles, which denote his diftind: powers
in each of the twelve months : thofe powers are called Adityas, or fons
of Aditi by Casyapa, the Indian Uranus ; and one of them has,
according to fome authorities, the name of Vishnu or Pcrvader. Su'-
rya is believed to have defcended frequently from his car in a human
ihape, and to have left a race on earth, who are equally renowned in
the Indian flories with the Heliadai of Greece : it is very fingular, that
his two fons called Aswinau or Aswini'cuma'rau, in the dual, fhould
be confidered as twin-brothers, and painted like Castor and Pollux,
but they have each the charader of iEscuLAPius among the Gods,
and are believed to have been born of a nymph, who, in the form of a
mare, was impregnated with fun-beams. I fufpedl the whole fable of
Casyapa and his progeny to be aftronomical ; and cannot but imagine,
that the Greek name Cassiopeia has a relation to it. Another great
Indian family are called the Children of the Moon, or Chandra; who
is
ITALY, AND INDIA. , 26Q
is a male Deity, and confequently not to be compared with Artemis
or Diana j nor have I yet found a parallel in India for the Goddefs of
the Chafe, who feems to have been the daughter of an European fancy,
and very naturally created by the invention of Bucolick and Georgick
poets : yet, fmce the Moon is 2, form of i'swara, the God of Nature,
according to the verfe of Ca'lid a'sa, and fmce i'sa'ni has been fhown
to be his confort or power, we may confider her, in one of her charac-
ters, as Luna ; efpecially as we fliall foon be convinced that, in the
fhades below% flie correfponds with the Hecate oi Europe.
The worfliip of Solar, or Veflal, Fire may be afcribed, like that of
Osiris and Isis, to the fecond fource of mythology, or an enthuiiaftick
admiration of Nature's wonderful powers ; and it feems, as far as I can
yet underftand the Ve'das, to be the principal worfliip recommended in
them. We have feen, that Maha'de'va himfelf is perfonated by Fire;
but, fubordinate to him, is the God Agni, often called Pa'vaca, or
the Purifier, who anfwers to the Vulcan of Egypt, where he was a
Deity of high rank; and his wife Swa'ha' refembles the younger Ves-
ta, or Vesti A, as the Eolians pronounced the Greek word for a hearth:
Bhava'ni, or Venus, is the confort of the Supreme Deflrudlive and
Generative Power; but the Greeks and Romans, whofe fyflem is lefs
regular than that of the Indians, married her to their divine artiji, whom
they alfo named Hephaistos and Vulcan, and who feems to be the
Indian Viswacarman, the forger of arms for the Gods, and inventor
of the agnyaflra, ov fiery JJjaft , in the war between them and the Daityas
or Titans. It is not eafy here to refrain from obferving (and, if the
obfervation give offence in England, it is contrary to my intention) that
the newly difcovered planet fhould unqueftionably be named Vulcan ;
fince the confulion of analogy in the names of the planets is inelegant,
unfcholarly, and unphilofophical : the name Uranus is appropriated to
the firmament; but Vulcan, the floweft of the Gods, and, according
to
270 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
to the Egyptian priefts, the oldefl of them, agrees admirably with an
orb, which muft perform its revolution in a very long period ; and, by
giving it this denomination, we fhall have feven primary planets with
the names of as many Roman Deities, Mercury, Venus, Tellus,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vulcan.
It has already been intimated, that the Muses and Nymphs are the
Go'p Y A of Math'ura, and of Gdverdhan, the Parnajfus of the Hindus ; and
the lyrick poems of Jayade'va will fully juflify this opinion ; but the
Nymphs of Alufick are the thirty Ra'gini's or Female Pajjions, whofe
various fund:ions and properties are fo richly delineated by the Indian
painters and fo finely defcribed by the poets j but I will not anticipate
what will require a feparate Effay, by enlarging here on the beautiful
allegories of the Hindus in their fyflem of mufical modes, which they
call Ra'ga's, or PaJJions, and fuppofed to be Genii or Demigods. A
very diftinguifhed fon of Brahma', named Na'red, whofe adlions are
the fubjeft of a Purdna, bears a ftrong refemblance to Hermes or Mer-
cury : he was a wife legiflator, great in arts and in arms, an eloquent
meffenger of the Go'ds either to one another or to favoured mortals, and
a mufician of exquifite fkill ; his invention of the Vind^ or Indian lute,
is thus defcribed in the poem entitled Mdgha : " Na'red fat watching
" from time to time his large Vina, which, by the impulfe of the
" breeze, yielded notes, that pierced fucceffively the regions of his ear,
" and proceeded by mufical intervals." The law traft, fuppofed to have
been revealed by Na'red, is at this hour cited by the Pandits ; and we
cannot, therefore, believe him to have been the patron of Thieves; though
an innocent theft of Crishna's cattle, by way of putting his divinity to
a proof, be ftrangely imputed, in the Bhdgavat, to his father Brahma'.
The laft of the Greek or Italian divinities, for whom we find a paral-
lel in the Pantheon of India, is the Stygian or I'aurick Diana, other-
wife
Yol.l.
'?<7. 970.
A- ''/
ITALY, AND INDIA. 2/1
wife named Hecate, and often confounded with Proserpine; and
there can be no doubt of her identity with Ca'li', or the wife of Siva
in his character of the Stygian Jove. To this black Goddefs with a
collar of golden fkulls, as we fee her exhibited in all her principal tem-
ples, human facriftces were anciently offered, as the Vedas enjoined j but,
in the prefent age, they are abfolutely prohibited, as are alfo the facri-
fices of bulls and horfes : kids are ftill offered to her ; and, to pal-
liate the cruelty of the flaughter, which gave fuch offence to Buddha,
the Brahmans inculcate a belief, that the poor vidtims rife in the heaven
of Indra, where they become the mulicians of his band. Inftead of
the obfolete, and now illegal, facrifices of a man, a bull, and a horfe,
called Neramedha, Gomedha, and Aswamedha, the powers of nature are
thought to be propitiated by the lefs bloody ceremonies at the end of
autumn, when the feftivals of Ca'li' and Lacshmi' are folemnized
nearly at the fame time : now, if it be afked, how the Goddefs of
Death came to be united with the mild patronefs of Abundance, I mufl
propofe another queflion, " How came Proserpine to be reprefented
'* in the European fyflem as the daughter of Ceres ?" Perhaps, both
quellions may be anfwered by the propofition of natural philofophers,
that " the apparent deftrudlion of a lubftance is the produdlion of it in
" a different form." The wild mufick of Ca'li's priefls at one of her
fefliivals brought inflantly to my recolled:ion the Scythian meafures of
Diana's adorers in the fplendid opera of Iphigenia in Taiiris, which
Gluck exhibited at Paris with lefs genius, indeed, than art, but with
every advantage that an orcheflra could fupply.
That we may not difmifs this affemblage of European and Afiatick
divinities with a fubjecfl fo horrid as the altars of Hecate and Ca'li',
Vet us conclude with two remarks, which properly, indeed, belong to the
Indian Philofophy, with which we are not at prefent concerned. Firfl;
Elyfium
2/2 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
Elyjium (not the place, but the bhfs enjoyed there, in which fenfe
Milton ufes the word) cannot but appear, as defcribed by the poets,
a very tedious and infipid kind of enjoyment : it is, however, more ex-
alted than the temporary Elyjium in the court of Indra, where the
pleafures, as in Muhammed's paradife, are wholly fenfual ^ but the
AIuBi, or Elyfian happinefs of the Vedcmta School is far more fublime ;
for they reprefent it as a total abforption, though not fuch as to deftroy
confcioufnefs, in the divine effence ; but, for the reafon before fug-
gefled, I Jay no more of this idea of beatitude, and forbear touching
on the dodlrine of tranfmigration and the fimilarity of the Vcdanta to the
Sicilian, Italick, and old Academick Schools.
Secondly ; in the myftical and elevated character of Pan, as a perfonl-
fication of the Univerje, according to the notion of lord Bacon, there
arifes a fort of limilitude between him and Crishna confidered as Na'-
ra'yan. The Grecian god plays divinely on his reed, to exprefs, we
are tald, etherial harmony; he has his attendant Nymphs of the paftures
and the dairy ; his face is as radiant as the fky, and his head illumined
with the horns of a crefcent; whilft his lower extremities are deformed
and ihaggy, as a fymbol of the vegetables, which the earth produces,
and of the beafts, who roam over the face of it : now we may compare
this portrait, partly with the general charader of Crishna, the Shep-
herd God, and partly with the defcription in the Bhagavat of the divine
fpirit exhibited in the form of this Univerfal World; to which we may
add the following ftory from the fame extraordinary poem. The
Nymphs had complained to Yaso'da', that the child Crishna had
been drinking their curds and milk: on being reproved by his foller-
mother for this indifcretion, he requefted her to examine his mouth ; in
which, to her jufl amazement, flie beheld the ivhole imiverfe in all its
plenitude of magnificence.
Wc
ITALY, AND INDIA. 273
We muft not be furprized at finding, on a clofe examination, that
the charadters of all the pagan deities, male and female, melt into each
other, and at laft into one or two; for it feems a well-founded opinion,
that the whole crowd of gods and goddeffes in ancient Rome, and modern
Fdrdnes, mean only the powers of nature, and principally thofe of the
Sun, expreffed in a variety of ways and by a multitude of fanciful
names.
Thus have I attempted to trace, imperfedtly at prefent for want of
ampler materials, but with a confidence continually increafing as I ad-
vanced, a parallel between the Gods adored in three very different na-
tions, Greece, Italy, and India ; but, which was the original fyftem and
which the copy, I will not prefume to decide ; nor are we likely, I be-
lieve, to be foon furnillied with fufficient grounds for a decifion : the
fundamental rule, that natural, and tnoji human, operations proceed from
the fimple to the compound, will afford no affiftance on this point ; fince
neither the Afiatick nor 'European fyftem has any fimplicity in it ; and
both are fo complex, not to fay abfurd, however intermixed with the
beautiful and the fublime, that the honour, fuch as it is, of the inven-
tion cannot be allotted to either with tolerable certainty.
Since E^pt appears to have been the grand fource of knowledge for
the wejiern, and India for the more eafiern, parts of the globe, it may
feem a material queftion, whether the Egyptians communicated their
Mythology and Philofophy to the Hindus, or converfely ; but what the
learned of Memphis wrote or faid concerning India, no mortal knows;
and what the learned of Fdrdnes have afferted, if any thing, concernino-
Egypt, can give us little fatisfadlion : fuch circumftantial evidence on
this queftion as I have been able to colleft, fliall neverthelefs be ftated ;
becaufe, unfatisfa<ftory as it is, there may be fomething in it not wholly
unworthy of notice; though after all, whatever colonies may have come
VOL. I. P P from
274 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
from the Nik to the Ganges, we fhall, perhaps, agree at laft with Mr.
Bryant, that Egyptians, Indians, Greeks, and Itafums, proceeded ori-
ginally from one central place, and that the fame people carried their
relio-ion and fciences into China and Japan: may wc not add, even to
Mexico and Peru f
Every one knows, that the true name of Egypt is Mis' r, fpelled with
a palatial fibilant both in Hebrew and Arabick : it feems in Hebrew to
have been the proper name of the firft fettler in it; and, when the
Arabs ufe the word for a great city, they probably mean a city like the
capital of Egypt. Father Marco, a Roman Miffionary, who, though
not a fcholar of the firft: rate, is incapable, I am perfuaded, of deliberate
falfehood, lent me the laft book of a Rdmdyan, which he had tranflated
through the Hifidi into his native language, and with it a fliort vocabu-
lary of Mythological and Hiftorical names, which had been explained
to him by the Pandits of Betiyd, where he had long refided : one of
the articles in his little didtionary was, " Tirut, a town and province,
" in which the priefts from Egypt fettled ;" and, when I afked him,
what name Egypt bore among the Hindus, he faid Mis'r, but obferved,
that they fometimes confounded it with Abyjjinia. I perceived, that
his memory of what he had written was corredl j for Mis'r was another
word in his index, " from which country, he faid, came the Egyptian
" priefts, who fettled in Tirut." I fufpeded immediately, that his in-
telligence flowed from the Mufelmans, who call fugar-candy Mifri or
Egyptian ; but, when I examined him clofely, and earneftly defired him
to recoiled: from whom he had received his information, he repeatedly
and pofitively declared, that " it had been given him by feveral Hindus,
*• and particularly by a Brahman, his intimate friend, who was reputed
" a confiderable Pandit, and had lived three years near his houfe."
We then conceived, that the feat of his Egyptian colony muft have been
Tirohit, commonly pronounced Tirut, and anciently called Mit'hila, the
principal
ITALY, AND INDIA. 275
principal town of Janacades'a, or north Bahar ; but P^Iahe'sa PandU,
who was born in that very diilrid:, and who fubmitted patiently to a
long examination concerning Mis'r, overfet all our conclufions : h^ de-
nied, that the BrdJjmans of his country were generally lurnamed Misr,
as we had been informed; and faid, that the addition of Misra to the
name of Va'chespeti, and other learned authors, was a title formerly
conferred on the writers of mifcellanies, or compilers of various tradts on
religion or fcience, the word being derived from a root fignifying to mix.
Being afked, where the country of Af//r was, " There are two, he an-
" fwered, of that name ; one of them in the weji under the dominion of
'* Mufelmans, and another, which all the Sdjlras and Purdnas mention,
" in a mountainous region to the north of Ayddhyd :" it is evident, that
by the firll he meant Egypt, but what he meant by the fecond, it is not
eafy to afcertain. A country, called Tiruhut by our geographers, ap-
pears in the maps between the north-eaftern frontier of Audh and the
mountains of Nepal; but whether that was the I'irut mentioned to father
Marco by his friend of Betiya, I cannot decide. This only I know
with certainty, that Mifra is an epithet of two Brdhmans in the drama
of Sacontala', which was written near a century before the birth of
Christ ; that fome of the greatefl lawyers, and two of the finefl dra-
matick poets, of India have the fame title ; that we hear it frequently in
court added to the names of Hindu parties ; and that none of the Pandits,
whom I have fince confulted, pretend to know the true meaning of the
word, as a proper name, or to give any other explanation of it than that
it is afurname of Brahmans in the weJi. On the account given to Co-
lonel Kyd by the old Rdjd of Crijhnanagar , " concerning traditions
♦* among the Hindus, that fome Egyptians had fettled in this country,"
I cannot rely j becaufe I am credibly informed by fome of the Rajas
own family, that he was not a man of folid learning, though he pofleffed
curious books, and had been attentive to the converfation of learned
men : befides, I know that his fon and mofl of his kinfmen have been
dabblers
276 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
dabblers in Perfian literature, and believe them very likely, by con-
founding one fource of information with another, to puzzle themfelves
and miflead thofe, vi^ith w^hom they converfe. The word Mis'r, fpelled
alfo in Sanfcrit with a palatial fibilant, is very remarkable ; and, as far
as Etymology can help us, we may fafely derive Niliis from the Sanfcrit
word nila, or blue; fince Dionysius exprefsly calls the waters of that
river ** an azure ftream j" and, if we can depend on Marco's Italian
verfion of the Rdmdyan, the name of Nila is given to a lofty and facred
mountain with a fummit of pure gold, from which flowed a river of
clear ^ fweet, and frejh water. M. Sonnerat refers to a differtation by
Mr. ScHMiT, which gained a prize at the Academy of Infcriptions,
" On an Egyptian Colony cftablifhed in India:" it would be worth
while to examine his authorities, and either to overturn or verify them
by fuch higher authorities, as are now acceffible in thefe provinces. I
ftrongly incline to think him right, and to believe that Egyptian priefts
have adlually come from the Nile to the Ganga and Yamuna, which the
Brdhmans mofl: alTuredly would never have left : they might indeed,
have come either to be inflrudled or to inftrudl ; but it feems more pro-
bable, that they vifited the Siirmans of India, as the fages of Greece vifit-
ed them, rather to acquire than to impart knowledge ; nor is it likely,
that the felf-fufficient Brdhmans would have received them as their pre-
ceptors.
Be all this as it may, I am perfuaded, that a connexion fubfifled be-
tween the old idolatrous nations of Egypt, India, Greece, and Italy, long
before they migrated to their feveral fettlements, and confequently be-
fore the birth of Moses ; but the proof of this propolition will in no de-
gree affedl the truth and fandlity of the Mofaick Hiftory, which, if con-
firmation were neceflliry, it would rather tend to confirm. The Divine
Legate, educated by tlie daughter of a king, and in all refpeds highly
accompliflied, could not but know the mythological fyflem of Egypt ;
but
ITALY, AND INDIA. 2/7
but he mufl have condemned the fuperftitions of that people, and de-
fpifed the fpeculative abiurdities of their priefts ; though fome of their
traditions concerning the creation and the flood were grounded on truth.
Who was better acquainted with the mythology oi Athens than Socra-
tes ? Who more accurately verfed in the Rabbinical doftrines than
Paul ? Who poffeffed clearer ideas of all ancient aflronomical fyftems
than Newton, or of fcholaftick metaphyficks than Locke ? In whom
could the Romijh Church have had a more formidable opponent than in
Chillingworth, whofe deep knowledge of its tenets rendered him fo
competent to difpute them ? In a word, who more exadtly knew the
abominable rites and {hocking idolatry of Canaan than Moses himfelf ?
Yet the learning of thofe great men only incited them to feek other
fources of truth, piety, and virtue, than thofe in which they had long
been immerfed. There is no fliadow then of a foundation for an
opinion, that Moses borrowed the firfl: nine or ten chapters of Genefis
from the literature of Egypt : ftill lefs can the adamantine pillars of our
Chrijiian faith be moved by the refult of any debates on the comparative
antiquity of the Hindus and Egyptians, or of any inquiries into the In-
dian Theology. Very refpeftable natives have affured me, that one or
two miflionaries have been abfurd enough, in their zeal for the conver-
fion of the Gentiles, to urge, " that the Hindus were even now almoft
" Chrijiians, becaufe their Brahma', Vishnu, and Mahe'sa, were no
" other than the Chrijiian Trinity j" a fentence, in which we can only
doubt, whether folly, ignorance, or impiety predominates. The three
poi^-ers. Creative, Prefers ative, and DeJiruBi've, which the Hindus ex -
prefs by the triliteral word O m, were grofsly afcribed by the firfl: idola-
ters to the heat, light, dinA fame of their miftaken divinity, the Sun; and
their wifer fuccefTors in the Eaft, who perceived that the Sun was
only a created thing, applied thofe powers to its creator ; but the Indian
Triad, and that of Plato, which he calls the Supreme Good, the Rea-
fon.
278 ON THE GODS OF GREECE,
fon, and the Soul, are infinitely removed from the holinefs and fubhmity
cf the dodlrine, which pious Chrijiians have deduced from texts in the
Gofpe], though other Chrijiians, as pious, openly profefs their diflent
from them. Each fed; mufl be juillfied by its own faith and good in-
tentions : this only I mean to inculcate, that the tenet of our church
cannot without profanenefs be compared with that of the Hindus, which
has only an apparent refemblance to it, but a very different meaning.
One fingular faft, however, mull not be futfered to pafs unnoticed.
That the name of Crishna, and the general outline of his flory, were
long anterior to the birth of our Saviour, and probably to the time' of
Homer, we know very certainly; yet the celebrated poem, entitled
Bhdgavat, which contains a prolix account of his life, is filled with nar-
ratives of a moft extraordinary kind, but flrangely variegated and inter-
mixed with poetical decorations : the incarnate deity of the Sanfcrit ro-
mance was cradled, as it informs us, among Herd/men, but it adds, that
he was educated among them, and paifed his youth in playing with a
party of milkmaids ; a tyrant, at the time of his birth, ordered all new-
born males to be flain, yet this wonderful babe was preferved by biting
the breaft, inilead of fucking the poifoned nipple, of a nurfe commif-
fioned to kill him ; he performed amazing, but ridiculous, miracles in
his infancy, and, at the age of {tvtn years, held up a mountain on the
tip of his little finger : he faved multitudes partly by his arms and partly
by his miraculous powers j he raifed the dead by defcending for that
purpofe to the lowefl regions ; he was the meekeft and beft-tempered of
beings, wafhed the feet of the Brdhmans, and preached very nobly, in-
deed, and fublimely, but always in their favour; he was pure and
chafte in reality, but exhibited an appearance of excelTive libertinifm,
and had wives or miftrefles too numerous to be counted ; laftly, he was
benevolent and tender, yet fomented and conduced a terrible war.
This motley flory jnuft induce an opinion that the fpurious Gofpels,
which
ITALY, AND INDIA. 279
which abounded in the firil: age of Chrijllanky , had been brought to In-
dia, and the wildeft parts of them repeated to the Hindus, who ingrafted
them on the old fable of Ce'sava, the Apollo oi Greece.
As to the general extenfion of our pure faith in Hindujldn, there arc
at prefent many fad obftaclcs to it. The Mnfelnians arc already a fort of
heterodox C/6ri/?/w?zj : they are Cbrijiiam, if Locke I'eafons juftly, be-
caufe they firmly believe the immaculate conception, divine characfter,
and miracles of the Messiah ; but they are heterodox, in denying ve-
hemently his charadler of Son, and his equality, as God, with the Fa-
ther, of whofe unity and attributes they entertain and exprefs the moft
awful ideas; while they confider our dodlrine as perfect blafphemy, and
infift, that our copies of the Scriptures have been corrupted both by
Jews and Chrijlians. It will be inexpreffibly difficult to undeceive
them, and fcarce poffible to diminifli their veneration for Mohammed
and Ali, Avho were both very extraordinary men, and the fecond, a
man of unexceptionable morals : the Koran fhines, indeed, with a bor-
rowed light, fince mofl of its beauties are taken from our Scriptures >
but it has great beauties, and the Mnfelmdns will not be convinced that
they were borrowed. The Hindus on the other hand would readily ad-
mit the truth of the Gofpel ; but they contend, that it is perfedly con-
fiftent with their Sdjiras : the deity, they fay, has appeared innumerable
times, in many parts of this world and of all worlds, for the falvation of
his creatures ; and though we adore him in one appearance, and they in
others, yet we adore, they fay, the fame God, to whom our fcveral
worfliips, though different in form, are equally acceptable, if they be
fincere in fubftance. We may affure ourfelves, that neither Mujelmdns
nor Hindus will ever be converted by any miffion from the Church of
Rotne, or from any other church ; and the only human mode, perhaps,
of caufing fo great a revolution will be to tranflate into Sanfcrit and
Perfian
280 ON THE GODS OF GREECE, &c.
Perfmn fuch chapters of the Prophets, particularly of Isaiah, as are
indifputably Evangelical, together with one of the Gofpels, and a plain
prefatory difcourfe containing full evidence of the very diftant ages, in
which the predictions themfelves, and the hiftory of the divine perfon
predidled, were feverally made publick ; and then quietly to difperfe the
work among the well-educated natives; with whom if in due time it
failed of producing very falutary fruit by its natural influence, we
could only lament more than ever the ilrength of prejudice, and the
weaknefs of unaffifted reafon.
ON
ON
THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE HINDUS.
WRITTEN IN JANUART, 1788,
BT
The president.
J. HE great antiquity of the Hindus is believed fo firmly by thcmfelves,
and has been the fubjedl of fo much converfation among Europeans, that
a fliort view of their Chronological Syilem, which has not yet been ex-
hibited from certain authorities, may be acceptable to thofe, who feeic
truth without partiality to receive opinions, and without regarding any
confequences, that may refult from their inquiries : the confequences,
indeed, of truth cannot but be defirable, and no reafonable man will ap-
prehend any danger to fociety from a general diffufion of its light ; but
we mufl not fuffer ourfelves to be dazzled by a falfe glare, nor miftakc
enigmas and allegories for hiflorical verity. Attached to no fyftem, and
as much difpofed to rejeft the Mofaick hiftory, if it be proved erroneous,
as to believe it, if it be confirmed by found reafoning from indubitable
evidence, I propofe to lay before you a concife account of Indian Chro-
nology extrad:ed from Sanfcrit books, or coUedled from converfations
with Pandits, and to fubjoin a few remarks on their fyftem, without
attempting to decide a queftion, which I ihall venture to ftart, " whe-
voL. I. 0^ Q^ " ther
282 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
'* ther it is not in facft the fame with our own, but embelliflied and ob-
*' fcured by the fancy of their poets and the riddles of their aftronomers."
One of tlie moft curious books in Sanfcrit, and one of the oldeft after
the Veda s, is a tradt on religious and civil duties, taken, as it is believed,
from the oral inftrudtions of Menu, fon of Brahma', to the firft in-
habitants of the earth : a well-collated copy of this interefting law-tradl
is now before me j and I begin my differtation with a few couplets from
the firft chapter of it : " The fun caufes the divifion of day and night,
•' which are of two forts, thofe of men and thofe of the Gods ; the day,
•' for the labour of «// creatures in their feveral employments ; the night,
♦* for their {lumber. A month is a day and night of the Patriarchs ; and
" it is divided into two parts ; the bright half is their day for laborious
" exertions ; the dark half, their night for fleep. A year is a day and
" night of the Gods ; and that is alfo divided into two halves ; the day
*' is, when the fun moves towards the north ; the night, when it moves
" towards the fouth. Learn now the duration of a night and day of
" Brahma', with that of the ages refpe(5lively and in order. Four
" thoufand years of the Gods they call the Crtta (or SatyaJ, age ; and
♦' its limits at the beginning and at the end are, in like manner, as
" many hundreds. In the three fucceffive ages, together with their
" limits at the beginning and end of them, are thoufands and hundreds
" diminiflied by one. This aggregate of four ages, amounting to twelve
" thoufand divine years, is called an age of the Gods ; and a thoufand
" fuch divine ages added together muft be confidered as a day of Brah-
" ma' : his night has alfo the fame duration. The before mentioned
" age of the Gods, or twelve thoufand of their years, multiplied by
** feventy-one, form what is named here below a Manwantara. There
•* are alternate creations and deftrudtions of worlds through innumerable
" Manwantara s : the Being Supremely Defirable performs all this again
" and again."
Such
OF THE HINDUS. 283
Such is the arrangement of infinite time, whicli the Hindus believe to
have been revealed from heaven, and which they generally underfland
in a literal (enie : it feems to have intrinfick marks of being purely aftro-
nomical ; but I will not appropriate the obfervations of others, nor anti-
cipate thofe in particular, which have been made by two or three of our
members, and which they will, I hope, communicate to the fociety. A
conjedlure, however, of Mr. Paterson has fo much ingenuity in it,
that I cannot forbear mentioning it here, efpecially as it feems to be
confirmed by one of the couplets juft-cited : he fuppofes, that, as a
month of mortals is a day and night of the Patriarchs from the analogy of
its bright and dark halves, fo, by the fame analogy, a day and night of
mortals might have been confidered by the ancient Hindus as a month of
the lower world ; and then a year of fuch months will confift only of
twelve days and nights, and thirty fuch years will compofe a lunar year
of mortals ; whence he furmifes, that the four million three hundred and
twenty thoiijand yfss?,, of which the four Indian ages are fuppofed to con-
fifl:, mean only years of twelve days ; and, in fad, that fum, divided by
thirty, is reduced to an hundred and forty-four thoufand : now a thoufand
four hundred and forty years are one pada, a period in^the Hindu aftrono-
my, and that fum, multiplied by eighteen, amounts preeifely to twenty^
five thoufand nine hundred and twenty, the number of years in which the
fixed ftars appear to perform their long revolution eaftward. The laft
mentioned fum is the produdt alfo of an hundred and forty -four, which,
according to M. Bailly, was an old Indian cycle, into an hundred ajid
eighty, or the 'Tartarian period, called Fan, and of two thoifand eight
hundred and. eighty into nine, which is not only one of the lunar cycles,
but confidered by the Hindus as a myfterious number and an emblem of
Divinity, becaufe, if it be multiplied by any other whole number, the
fum of the figures in the different produdls remains always nine, as the
Deity, who appears in many forms, continues One immutable effence.
The important period of twenty five thoifand nine hundred and twenty
years
284 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
years is well known to arife from the multiplication of three hundred and
Jixty into feventy-two, the number of years in which a fixed ftar feems to
move through a degree of a great circle ; and, although M. Le Gen til
affures us, that the modern Hindus believe a complete revolution of the
ftars to be made in twenty-four t houf and yt^ivs, or Jifty-four feconds of a
degree to be pafled in one year, yet we may have reafon to think, that
the old Indian aftronomers had made a more accurate calculation, but
concealed their knowledge from the people under the veil oi fourteen
M-ENW ANT ara's, fcventy-o?2e divine ages, compound cycles, and years of
different forts, from thofe of Brahma' to thofe of Pdtdla, or the infernal
regions. If we follow the analogy fuggefted by Menu, and fuppofeonly
a day and night to be called a year, we may divide the number of years in
a divine age by three hundred and Jixty, and the quotient will be twelve
thoufand, or the number of his divine years in one age : but, conjecfture
apart, we need only compare the two periods 4320000 and 25920, and
we fliall find, that among their common divifors, are 0, 9, 12, &c. 18,
30, 72, 144, &c. which numbers with their feveral multiples, efpecially
in a decuple progreffion, conftitute fome of the moft celebrated periods
of the Chaldeans, Greeks, Tartars, and even of the Indians. We cannot
fail to obferve, that the number 432, which appears to be the bafis of
the Indian fyftem, is a Goth part of 25920, and, by continuing the com-
parifon, we might probably folve the whole enigma. In the preface to
a Vdrdnes Almanack I find the following wild ftanza : " A thoufand
*' Great Ages are a day of Brahma' j a thjufand fuch days are an Indian
" hour of Vishnu ; Jix hundred thoufand fuch hours make a period of
** RuDRA; and a million of Rudra s (or two quadrillions five hundred and
*■' ninety-two t hoi f and trillions of lunar years), are .but 2.fecond to the Su-
*' preme Being." The Hindu theologians deny the conclufion of the
flanza to be orthodox : '' Time, they fay, exijls not at all with God -," and
they advife the Aftronomers to mind their own bufinefs without meddlings
with theology. The aflronomical verfe, however, will anfwer our pre-
fent
OF THE HINDUS. 285
fent purpofci for it fliows, in the firft place, that cyphers are added at
pleafure to fwell the periods ; and, if we take ten cyphers from a Rudra,
or divide by ten thoufand miUions, we fliall have a period of 250200000
years, which, divided by 60 (the ufual divifor of time among the Hin-
dus) will give 4320000, or a Great Age, which we find fubdivided in
the proportion of 4, 3, 2, 1, from the notion of i;/r/«i? decreafmg arith-
metically in the golden, Jiher, copper, and earthen, ages. But, fhould it
be thought improbable, that the Indian aftronomers in very early times
had made more accurate obfervations than thofe of Alexandria, Bagdad,
or Maraghah, and ftill more improbable that they fllould have relapfed
without apparent caufe into error, we may fuppofe, that they formed
their divine age by an arbitrary multiplication of 24000 by 180 accord-
ing to M. Le Gentil, or of 21600 by 200 according to the comment
on the Siirya Siddhanta. Now, as it is hardly poffible, that fuch coin-
cidences Ihould be accidental, we may hold it Jiearly demonftrated, that
the period of a divine age was at firft merely aftronomical, and may con-
fequently rejedl it from our prefent inquiry into the hiftorical or civil
chronology of India. Let us, however, proceed to the avowed opi-
nions of the Hindus, and fee, when we have afcertained their fyftem,
whether we can reconcile it to the courfe of nature and the common
fenfe of mankind.
The aggregate of their four ages they call a divine age, and believe
that, in every thoufand fuch ages, or in every day of Brahma', /J«r-
teen Menu's are fucceflively invefted by him with the fovereignty of the
earth: each Menu, they fuppofe, tranfmits his empire to his fons and
grandfons during a period of feventy-one divine ages ; and fuch a period
they name a Manwantara ; but, (\nce fourteen multiplied hy feventy-one
are not quite a thoufand, we muil conclude, that fx divine ages are al-
lowed for intervals between the Manwantaru's, or for the twilight of
Brahma 's day. Thirty fuch days, or Calpas, conftitute, in their
opinion, a month of Brahma' -, twelve fuch mouths, one of his years >
and
286 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
and an hundred fuch years, his age ; of which age they affert, that fifty
years have ekpfed. We are now then, according to the Hindus, in the
firfi; day or Calpa of the firft month of the fifty-firfl: year of Brahma''s
ao-e, and in the twenty-eighth divine age of the feventh Manwantara, of
which divine age the three firji human ages have paffed, znd four thou-
J and eight hundred and eighty -eight of the, fourth.
Iri'the prefent day of Brahma' the firft Menu was furnamed Swa'-
YAMBHUVA, or Son of the Self-exifent ; and it is He, by whom the /«-
Jiitutes of Religious and Civil Duties are fuppofed to have been dehvered :
in his time the Deity defcended at a Sacrifice, and, by his wife Sata-
ru'pa', he had two diftinguifhed fons, and three daughters. This pair
was created, for the multipUcation of the human fpecies, after that new
creation of the world, which the Brdhtnans call Pddmacalpiya, or the
Z/O^oj-creation.
If it were worth while to calculate the age of Menu's Inftitutes, ac-
cording to the Brdhmans, we muft multiply four million three hundred
and twenty thoufand by fix times feventy-one, and add to the produd:
the number of years already paft in the feventh Manwantara. Of the
five Menu's, who fucceeded him, I have icQ.n. little more than the
names ; but the Hindu writings are very diffufe on the life and pofterity
oi the feventh Menu, furnamed Vaivaswata, or Child of the Sun :
he is fuppofed to have had ten fons, of whom the eldeft was Icsh-
wa'cu ; and to have been accompanied by feven Kijhts, or holy per-
fons, whofe names were, Casyapa, Atri, Vasishtha, Viswa'mi-
TRA, Gautama, Jamadagni, and Bharadwa'jaj an account,
which explains the opening of the fourth chapter of the Gita : " This
" immutable fyflem of devotion, fays Crishna, I revealed to Vivas-
" WAT, or the Sun ; Vivaswat declared it to his fon Menu; Menu
*' explained it to Icshwa'cu : thus the Chief i^z/Z'/'j- know this fublime
'* doSlrine delivered from one to another."
In
OF THE HINDUS. 28/
la the reign of this Sun-born Monarch the Hindus beheve the whole
earth to have been drowned, and the whole human race deflroyed by
a flood, except the pious Prince himfelf, the (evtn Rtjhi's, and their
feveral wives j for they fuppofe his children to have been born after the
deluge. This gcncval pralayay or deftru<flion, is the fubjedl of the firft
Piirdna, or Sacred Poemy which conliils of fourteen thoufand Stanzas ;
and the ftory is concifely, but clearly and elegantly, told in the eio-hth
book of the Bhagawata, from which I have extradied the whole, and
tranflated it witli great care, but will only prefent you here with an
abridgement of it. *' The demon Hayagri'va having purloined the
" Ftdas from the cuftody of Brahma', while he was repofing at the
" dole of the lixth Manwantara, the whole race of men became corrupt,
" except the feven Rijhts, and Satyavrata, who then reigned in
** Dravira, a maritime region to the fouth of Carndta : this prince was
** performing his ablutions in the river Critamdla, when Vishnu ap-
" peared to him in the fhape of a fmall filh, and, after feveral augmen-
" tations of bulk in different waters, was placed by Satyavrata in
** the ocean, where he thus addrell'ed his amazed votary : * \n feven days
* all creatures, who have offended me, fhall be deftroyed by a deluge,
* but thou {halt be fecured in a capacious velTel miraculoufly formed :
* take therefore all kinds of medicinal herbs and efculent grain for food,
' and, together with the (tven holy men, your refpeftive wives, and
* pairs of all animals, enter the ark without fear ; then fhalt thou know
* God face to face, and all thy queftions lliall be anfwered.' Saying
this, he difappeared ; and, after i&vtn days, the ocean " began to
" overflow the coafls, and the earth to be flooded by conftant fhowers,
" when Satyavrata, meditating on the Deity, faw a large vellel
" moving on the waters : he entered it, having in all refpefts conformed
" to the infl:rud:ions of Vishnu ; who, in the form of a vaft fifli, fufl^ered
" the veflel to be tied with a great fea ferpent, as with a cable, to his
" meafurelefs horn. When the deluge had ceafed, Vishnu flew the
" demon.
288 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
*• demon, and recovered the Vedas, inftru<5led Satyavrata in divine
"knowledge, and appointed him the feventh Menu by the name of
"Vaivaswata." Let us compare the two Indian accounts of the Crea-
tion and the Deluge with thofe delivered by Moses, It is not made a
quellion in this trad, whether the firft chapters of Genejis are to be un-
derftood in a literal, or merely in an allegorical, fenfe : the only points
before us are, whether the creation defcribed by the Jirjl Menu, which
the Brdhmans call that of the Lotos, be not the fame with that recorded
in our Scripture, and whether the ftory of the feventh Menu be not
one and the fame with that of Noah. I propofe the queftions, but
affirm nothing; leaving others to fettle their opinions, whether Adam
be derived from Mm, which in Sanfcrit means thtjirjl, or Menu from
NuH, the true name of the Patriarch ; whether the Sacrifice, at which
God is believed to have defcended, allude to the offering of Abel ;
and, on the whole, whether the two Menu's can mean any other per-
fons than the great progenitor, and the reftorer, of our fpecies.
On a fuppofition, that Vaivaswata, or Sun-born, was the Noah
of Scripture, let us proceed to the Indian account of his pofterity, which
I extradl from the Puranarf haprecds a, or The Purdnds Explained, a
work lately compofed in Sanfcrit by Ra'dha'ca'nta Barman, a Pan-
dit of extenfive learning and great fame among the Hindus of this pro-
vince. Before we examine the genealogies of kings, which he has col-
le(5led from the Purdnds, it will be neceffary to give a general idea of
the Avatdrds, or Defcents, of the Deity : the Hindus believe innu-
merable fuch defcents or fpecial interpofitions of providence in the af-
fairs of mankind, but they reckon ten principal Avatdrds in the current
period of four ages ; and all of them are defcribed, in order as they arc
fuppofed to occur, in the following Ode of Jayade'va, the great
Lyrick Poet of India.
1 . " Thou
OF THE HINDUS. 289
1 . " Thou recovereil: the Veda in the water of the ocean of de-
" llru(flion, placing it joyfully in the bofom of an ark fabricated by thee ;
" O Ce'sava, afTuming the body of ^ Jijh : be vidlorious, O Heri,
** lord of the Univerfe !
2. " The earth ftands firm on thy immenfely broad back, which
" grows larger from the callus occafioned by bearing that vaft burden,
" O Ce'sava, afTuming the body of a torioifc : be vidlorious, O Heri,
** lord of the Univerfe !
3. " The earth, placed on the point of thy tufk, remains fixed like
" the figure of a black antelope on the moon, O Ce'sava, afluming
*' the form of a boar : be vidlorious, O Heri, lord of the Univerfe !"
4. The claw with a flupendous point, on the exquifite lotos of thy
lion's paw, is the black bee, that ftung the body of the embowelled
Hiranyacasipu, O Ce'sava, afluming the form of a man- lion : be
vidlorious, O Heri, lord of the Univerfe !
5. By thy power thou beguilefl: Bali, O thou miraculous dwarf,
thou purifier of men with the water (of Ganga) fpringing from thy
feet, O Ce'sava, afluming the form of a dwarf: be vid:orious, O He-
ri, lord of the Univerfe !
0. Thou batheft in pure water, confifting of the blood of CJhatriya's,
the world, whofe ofi^ences are removed and who are relieved from the
pain of other births, O Ce'sava, afl"uming the form of Paras'u-Ra'ma:
be vidtorious, O Heri, lord of the Univerfe !
f . With eafe to thyfelf, with delight to the Genii of the eiglit re-
gions, thou fcatterefl; on all fides in the plain of combat the demon with
- VOL. I. r R ten
2Q0 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
ten heads, O Ce'sava, affuming the form of Ra'ma-Chandra : be
vidlorious, O Heri, lord of the Univerfe !
• 8. Thou weareft on thy bright body a mantle fhining like a blue
cloud, or like the water of Yamuna tripping toward thee through fear
of thy innovf'mg plough JJjare, O Ce'sava, affuming the form of Bala-
Ra'ma : be vidlorious, O Heri, lord of the Univerfe !
9. Thou blameft (oh, wonderful!) the whole Fe'da, when thou
feeft, O kind-hearted, the flaughter of cattle prefcribed for facrifice, O
Ce'sava, affuming the body of Buddha: be vicSorious, O Heri, lord
of the Univerfe !
10. For the deftrucflion of all the impure thou dra weft thy cimeter
like a blazing comet (how tremendous!), O Ce'sava, affuming the
body of Calci : be vidorious, O Heri, lord of the Univerfe !
Thefe ten Avatards are by fome arranged according to the thoufands
of divine years in each of the four ages, or in an arithmetical proportion
from four to one j and, if fuch an arrangement were univerfally received,
we fliould be able to afcertain a very material point in the Hindu Chro-
nology; I mean the birth of Buddha, concerning which the different
Pandits, whom I have confulted, and the fame Pandits at different
times, have expreffed a ftrange diverfity of opinion. They all agree,
that Calci is yet to come, and that Buddha was the laft confiderable
incarnation of the Deity ; but the aftronomers at Vardnes place him in
the third age, and Ra'dh a'ca'nt infifts, that he appeared after the thou-
fandth year of the fourth : the learned and accurate author of the Dabif-
tan, whofe information concerning the Hindus is wonderfully corredl:,
mentions an opinion of the Pandits, with whom he had converfed, that
Buddha began his career ten years before the clofe of the third age;
and
OF THE HINDUS. 29 1
and Go'vERDHANA of Cafimir, who had once informed me, that
Crishna defcended tivo centuries before Buddha, alTured me lately,
that the CaJJjminans admitted an interval of tiventy-four years (others
allow only twelve) between thofe two divine perfons. The beft autho-
rity, after all, is the Bbagawat itfelf, in the lirft chapter of which it is
exprefsly declared, that " Buddha, the fon of Jin a, would appear at
" Cicat'a, for the purpofe of confounding the demons, juji at the begin-
" ning of the Caliyiig." I have long been convinced, that, on thefe
fubjedts, we can only reafon fatisfadorily from written evidence, and
that our forenfick rule mufl be invariably applied, to take the declarations
of the Brahmans moji Jlrongly againji themfehes, that is, againji their pre-
tenjions to antiquity j fo that, on the whole, we may fafely place Buddha
juJl at the beginning of the prefent age : but what is the beginning of
it ? When this queftion was propofed to Ra'dha'ca'nt, he anfwered :
*' of a period comprifing more than four hundred thoufand years, the
" firft two or three thoufand may reafonably be called the beginning.''
On my demanding written evidence, he produced a book of fome autho-
rity, compofed by a learned Gofwami, and entitled Bhagawatamrita, or,
the NeSlar of the Bbagawat, on which it is a metrical comment ; and
the couplet which he read from it deferves to be cited: after the jufl
mentioned account of Buddha in the text, the commentator fays,
yifau vyaSiah calerabdafahafradwitaye gate,
Murtih pat' alavernafya dwibhuja chicurojj'hita.
* He became vifible, the-thoufand-and-fecond-year-of-the-Cali-^^^, be-
' ing pafl ; his body of-a-colour-between-white-and-ruddy, with-two-
* arms, without-hair on his head.'
Cicat'a, named in the text as the birth place of Buddha, the
Gofwami fuppofes to have been Dhermaranya, a wood near Gaya, where
a coloflal image of that ancient Deity ftill remains : it feemed to me of
black
292 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
black {[one ; but, as I faw it by torch-light, I cannot be pofitive as to
its colour, which may, indeed, have been changed by time.
The Brdhmans univerfally fpeak of the Bauddhas with all the malig-
nity of an intolerant fpirit ; yet the moft orthodox among them confider
Buddha himfelf as an incarnation of Vishnu: this is a contradiitioii
hard to be reconciled ; unlefs we cut the knot, inftead of untying it, by
fuppofing with GioRGi, that there were two Buddhas, the younger of
whom ellabliihed the new religion, which gave fo great offence in In-
dia, and was introduced into China in the firft century of our era. The
CaJJj?nirian before mentioned afferted tliis fadl, without being led to it by
any queftion that implied it ; and we may have reafon to fuppofe, that
Buddha is in truth only a general word for a Philofopher : the author of
a celebrated Sanfcrit Didlionary, entitled from his name Amaracojha,
who was himfelf a Bauddfia, and flourifhed in the firft century before
Christ, begins his vocabulary with nine words, that fignify heaven, and
proceeds to thofe, which mean a deity in general ; after which come dif-
ferent clajjes of Gods, Demigods, and Demons, all by generick names ; and
they are followed by two very remarkable heads ; firft, (not the general
names of Buddha, but) the names of a Buddha-in-general, of which he
gives us eighteen, fuch as Muni, Sujh-i, Miimndra, Vinayaca, Saman-
tabhadra, Dhermardja, Sugaia, and the like ; moft of them fignificative
oi excellence, ivijdofn, 'virtue, "xnAf anility ; fecondly, the names oi z-par-
ticular-Buddha-Muni-viho-dticcndtd-'m-tht-f^imWy-oiS a'c ya (thofe
are the very words of the original), and his titles are, Sdcyamiini, Sdcya-
Jinha, Servdrt' hafiddha, Saudhodani, Gautama, Arcabandhu, or Kinjman
of the ^un, and Mdyddevifuta, or Child of Ma' Y a' : thence the author
palTes to the different epithets of particular Hindu Deities. When I
pointed out this curious paffage to Ra'dha'ca'nt, he contended, that
the firft eighteen names were ^d-wr^/ epithets, and the following feven,
proper
OF THE HINDUS. 2^3
prcper names, or patronyniicks, of one and the fame perfon ; but Ra'ma-
Lo'cHAN, my own teacher, who, though not a Brahman, is an excellent
fcholar and a very fenfible unprejudiced man, allured me, that Buddba
was a generick word, Hke Dsva, and that the learned author, having
exhibited the names of a Devata in general, proceeded to thofe of a
Buddha in general, before he came to particulars : he added, that Buddha
might mean a Sage or a Philofopher, though Biidha was the word com-
monly ufed for a mere "wife man without fupernatural powers. It feems
highly probable, on the whole, that the Buddha, whom Jayade'va
celebrates in his Hymn, was the Sacyafinha, or Lion of Sa cya, who,
though he forbad the facrifices of cattle, which the Vedds enjoin, was
believed to be Vishnu himfelf in a human form, and that another
Buddha, one perhaps of his followers in a later age, afTuming his name
and charadler, attempted to overfet the whole fyftem of the Brahmans,
and was the caufe of that perfecution, from which the Bauddhas are
known to have fled into very diftant regions. May we not reconcile
the fingular difference of opinion among the Hindus as to the time of
Buddha's appearance, by fuppofmg that they have confounded the Tivo
Buddha s, the firfl: of whom was born a few years before the clofe of the
laft age, and the fecond, when above a thoufand years of the pre-
fent age had elapfed ? We know, from better authorities, and with as
much certainty as can juftly be expedted on fo doubtful a fubje<ft, the
real time, compared with our own era, when the ancient Buddha
began to diftinguiHi himfelf; and it is for this reafon principally, that
I have dwelled with minute anxiety on the fubjed: of the laft Avatar.
The Brahmans, who aflifted Abu'lfazl in his curious, but fuper-
ficial, account of his mafter's Empire, informed him, if the figures in
the Ayini Acbari be corredly written, that a period of 2962 years had
elapfed from the birth of Buddha to the -loth year of Acbar's reign,
which computation will place his birth in the 1 SGOth year before that of
our
294 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
our Saviour ; but, when the Chinefe governmeat admitted a new religion
from L:dia in the firft century of our era, they made particular inquiries
concerning the age of the old Indian Buddha, whofe birth, according
to Couplet, they place in the -lift year of their 28th cycle, or 1036
years before Christ, and they call him, fays he^ Foe the fon of Moye
or Maya'; but M. De Guignes, on the authority of four Chinefe
Hiftorians, afieits, that Fo was born about the year before Christ
102/, in the kingdom oi Capmir : Giorgi, or rather Cassiano, from
whofe papers his work was compiled, affures us, that, by the calcula-
tion of the Tibetians, he appeared only 95 0 years before the Chrijiian
epoch ; and M. Bailly, with feme hefitation, places him 1031 years
before it, but inclines to think him far more ancient, confounding him,
as I have done in a former trad:, with the/r/? Budha, or Mercury,
whom the G(?/>6j- called Woden, and of whom I fhall prefently take par-
ticular notice. Now, whether we affume the medium of the four laft-
mentioned dates, or implicitly rely on the authorities quoted by De
Guignes, we may conclude, that Buddha was firft diftinguiflied in
this country about a thoiifand years before the beginning of our era j and
whoever, in fo early an age, expeds a certain epoch unqualified with
about or nearly, will be greatly difappointed. Hence it is clear, that,
whether the fourth age of the Hindus began about one thoufand years be-
fore Christ, according to Goverdhan's account of Buddha's birth,
or iivo thoufand, according to that of Ra'dha'ca'nt, the common
opinion, that 4888 years of it are now elapfed, is erroneous ; and here
for the prefent we leave Buddha, with an intention of returning to him
in due time -, obferving only, that, if the learned Indiajis differ fo widely
in their accounts of the age, when their ninth Avatar appeared in their
country, we may be aflured, that they have no certain Chronology be-
fore him, and may fufped the certainty of all the relations concerning
even his appearance.
The
OF THE HINDUS. 2Q5
The received Chronology of the Hindus begins with an abfurdity fo
monftrous, as to overthrow the whole fyftem ; for, having eftablifhed
their period oi Jeijenty-one divifie ages as the reign of each Menu, yet
thinking it incongruous to place a holy perfonage in times of impiirityt
they infift, that the Menu reigns only in every golden age, and difappears
in the three human ages that follow it, continuing to dive and emerge,
like a waterfowl, till the clofe of his Manwantara : the learned author
of the Purdndrt' hapracdfay which I will now follow ftep by fl:ep, men-
tioned this ridiculous opinion with a ferious face ; but, as he has not in-
ferted it in his work, we may take his account of the feventh Menu ac-
cording to its obvious and rational meaning, and fuppofe, that Vaivas-
WATA, the fon of Su'rya, the fon of Casyapa, or Uranus, the fon
of Mari'chi, or Light: the fon of Brahma', which is clearly an
allegorical pedigree, reigned in the laft golden age, or, according to
the Hindus, three million eight hundred and ninety-two thoufand eight
hundred and eighty-eight years ago. But they contend, that he adtu-
ally reigned on earth one million /even hundred and twenty-eight thoufand
years of mortals, or four thoufand eight hundred years of the Gods ; and
this opinion is another monfler fo repugnant to the courfe of nature and
to human reafon, that it muft be rejected as wholly fabulous, and taken
as a proof, that the Indians know nothing of their Sun-born Menu, but
his name and the principal event of his hfe ; I mean the univerfal deluge,
of which the three firfl Avatar s are merely allegorical reprefentations,
with a mixture, efpecially in the fecofid, of aflronomical Mythology.
From this Menu the whole race of men is believed to have defcend-
ed ; for the feven Rijhi's, who were preferved with him in the ark, are
not mentioned as fathers of human families ; but, fince his daughter
Ila' was married, as the Indians tell us, to the firfl Budha, or Mer-
cury, the fon of Chandra, or the Moon, a male Deity, whofe father was
Atri, fon of Brahma' (where again we meet with an allegory purely
aflronomical
290 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
aftronomical or poetical), his poflerity are divided into two great branches,
called the Children of the Sun from his own fuppofed father, and the
Children of the Moon, from the parent of his daughter's hufband : the
lineal male defcendants in both thefe families are fuppofed to have
reigned in the cities of Ayodhya, or Audh, and Pratijlot' hdna, or Vitora,
refpeftively till the thoifajidth year of the prefent age, and the names of
all the princes in both lines having been diligently colledled by Ra dha-
ca'nt from feveral Purdnas, I exhibit them in two columns arranged
by myfelf with great attention.
10.
If.
SUN.
Icshwa'cu,
Vicucfhi,
Cucutft'ha,
Anenas,
Prifhu,
Vis'wagandhi,
Chandra,
Yuvanas'wa,
Srava,
Vrihadas'wa,
Dhundhumara,
Drid''has'wa,
Heryas'wa,
Nicumbha,
Lris as wa,
Senajit,
Yuvanas'wa,
Mandhatri,
SECOND AGE.
CHILDREN OF THE
MOON.
BUDHA,
Pururavas,
Ayufli,
Nahuflia,
Yaydti,
Purii,
Janamejaya,
Prachinwat,
Pravira,
Menafyu,
Charupada,
Sudyu,
Bahugava,
Sanyati,
Ahanyati,
Raudras'wa,
RiteyulL,
Rantinava,
10.
15.
Purucutfa,
OF THE HINDUS.
297
CHILDREN OF THE
SUN.
Purucutfa,
20. Trafadafyu,
Anaranya,
Heryas'wa,
Praruna,
Trivindhana,
25. Satyavrata,
Tris'ancu,
Haris'chandra,
Rohita,
Harita,
30. Champa,
Sudeva,
Vijaya,
Bharuca,
Vrica,
35. Bahuca,
Sagara,
Afamanjas,
Ans'umat,
Bhagirai" ha^
40. Sruta,
Nabha,
Sindhudwipa,
Ayutayufli,
Ritaperna,
45. Saudafa,
As'maca,
Mulaca,
VOL. 1.
s s
MOON.
Sumati,
Aiti, 20.
Dufimanta,
Bharatay *
(Vitat'ha,
Manyu,
Vrihatcfhetra, 25.
Haftin,
Ajamid 'ha,
Ricfha,
Samwarana,
Curu, 30.
yahnUy
Surat'ha,
Vidurat'ha,
Sarvabhauma,
Jayatfena, Z5.
Radhica,
Ayutayufh,
Acrodhana,
Devatit'hi,
Ricilia, 40.
Dil'ipa,
Frati'pa,
Santanu,
Vichitravirya,
Pandu, 45.
rudhiJJjt'hirJ.
Das'arat'ha,
298 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
CHILDREN OF THE'
SUN. MOON.
Das'arat'ha,
Aid'abid'i,
50. Vis'wafaha,
C'hat'wanga,
Dirghabahu,
Raghu,
Aja,
55. Tia^arafhay
Ra'ma.
It is agreed among all the Pandits, that Ra'MA, \h^\x feventh Incar-
nate Divinity, appeared as king of Ayodhya in the interval between the
Jiher and the brazen ages ; and, if we fuppofe him to have begun his
reign at the very beginning of that interval, ftill three thoufand three
hundred yc^vs of the Gods, or a million one hundred and eighty-eight thou-
fand lunar years of mortals will remain in the filver age, during which
the fifty-fi'^e princes between Vaivaswata and Ra'ma mufl have
governed the world ; but, reckoning thirty years for a generation, which
is rather too much for a long fucceffion of eldefi fons, as they are faid to
have been, we cannot, by the courfe of nature, extend th.tfec0nd2.gQ of
the Hindus htyonAfixteen hundred and fifty folar years : if we fuppofe
them not to have been eldeft fons, and even to have lived longer than
modern princes in a diffolute age, we fhall find only a period of t-ivo
thoufand years ; and, if we remove the difficulty by admitting miracles,
we muft ceafe to reafon, and may as well believe at once whatever the
Brahmans chufe to tell us.
In the Lunar pedigree we meet with another abfurdity equally fatal to
the credit of the Hindu fyflem : as far as the twenty-fecond degree of
defcent
OF THE HINDUS. 299
defcent from Vaivaswata, the fynchronirm of the two families ap-
pears tolerably regular, except that the Children of the Moon were not
all eliieji fons j for king Yaya'ti appointed the youngefl of his five fons
to fucceed him in India, a.nd allotted inferior kingdoms to the other four,
who had offended him j part of the DacJJ.nn or tlie South, to Yadu, the
anceftor of Crishnaj the north, to Anuj the eaft, to Druhya j and
the weft, to Turvasu, from whom the Vandits believe, or pretend to
believe, in compliment to our nation, that we are defcended. But of
the fubfequent degrees in the lunar line they know fo little, that, un-
able to fupply a confiderable interval between Bharat and Vitat'ha,
whom they call his fon and fuccefTor, they are under a neceffity of affert-
ing, that the great anceftor of Yudhisht"hir adlually reignedyfi;^« and
twenty thouf and years ; a fable of the fame clafs with that of his wonder-
ful birth, which is the fubjedt of a beautiful Indian Drama : now, if
we fuppofe his life to have lafted no longer than that of other mortals,
and admit Vitat'ha and the reft to have been his regular fucceftbrs,
we fhall fall into another abfurdity ; for then, if the generations in both
lines were nearly equal, as they would naturally have been, we fhall
find Yudhisht"hir, who reigned confefledly at the clofe of the brazen
age, nine generations older than Ra'ma, before whofe birth \h& Jilver
age is allowed to have ended. After the name of Bharat, therefore,
I have fet an afterifk to denote a confiderable chafm in the Indian Hif-
tory, and have inferted between brackets, as out of their places, his
t-wenty-foiir fucceflbrs, who reigned, if at all, in the following age
immediately before the war of the Mahdbharat. The fourth Avatar^
which is placed in the interval between thejirj} ■i.wdifecond ages, and the
ffth which foon followed it, appear to be moral fables grounded on hif-
torical fadls : l\it fourth was the punifliment of an impious monarch by
the Deity himfelf burjUng from a marble Column in the fliape of a lion ;
and the ffth was the humiliation of an arrogant Prince by fo contempti-
ble an agent as a mendicant dwarf After thefe, and immediately
before
300 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
before Buddha, come three great wariours all named Ra'maj but it
may juftly be made a quellion, whether they are not three reprefenta-
tions of one perfon, or three different ways of relating the fame Hiftory t
the firft and fecond Ra'mas are faid to have been contemporary ; but
whether all or any of them mean Rama, the fon of Cu'sh, I leave
others to determine. The mother of the fecond Rama was named
Cau'shalya', which is a derivative of Cushala, and, though his
father be diftinguillied by the title or epithet of Da'sarat'ha, fignify-
ing, that bis War- chariot bore him to all quarters of the 'world, yet the
name of Cush, as the Cajlomirians pronounce it, is preferved entire in
that of his fon and fucceflbr, and fhadowed in that of his anceftor
VicucsHi ; nor can a jufl objed:ion be made to tliis opinion from the
nafal Arabian vowel in the word Rdmah mentioned by Moses, fmce the
very word Arab begins with the fame letter, which the Greeks and In-
dians could not pronounce ; and they were obliged, therefore, to exprefs
it by the vowel, which moft refembled it. On this queftion, however,
I aflert nothing ; nor on another, which might be propofed : " whether
" l\it fourth -ssid. fifth Avatars be not allegorical ftories of the two pre-
*' fumptuous monarchs, Nimrod and Belus." The hypothefis, that
goverjiment was firft eftablifhed, laivs enaded, and agriculture encouraged
in India by Rama about three thoufand eight hundred years ago, agrees
with the received account of Noah's death, and the previous fettlement
of his immediate defcendents,
THIRD AGE.
CHILDREN OF THE
SUN, MOON.
Cus'ha,
Atit'hi,
Nipadha^
Nabhas,
OF THE HINDUS.
301
CHILDREN OF THE
SUN.
Nabhas,
5. Pund'arfca,
Cfhemadhanwas,
Devanica,
Ahin'agu,
Paripatra,
10. Ranach'hala,
Vajranabha,,
Area,
Sugana,
Vidhnti,
15. Hiranyanabha,.
Pulliya,
Dhruvafandhi,.
Suders'ana,
Agniverna,.
2 0. Si'ghra,
Maru, fuppofed to be ftill alive.
Prafus'ruta,
Sandhi,
Amers'ana,,
2 5. Mahal wat,
Vis wabhahu,
Prafenajit,
Taclliaca,
Vrihadbala,
30. Vrihadran'a, Y. B. C. 3100.
MOON.
Vitat'ha,
Manyu,
Vrihatcfhetra,
Haftin,
Aj am id' 'ha,
Riclha,
Samwarana,
Ciiru,
Jahnu,
Surat'ha,
Vidurat'ha,
Sarvabhauma,
Jayatfena,
Radhica,
Ayutayufh,
Acrodhana,
Devatit'hi,
Riclha,
Dilipa,
Pratipa,
Santanu,
Vichitravirya,
Pandu,
TudhiJJ;t'hira,
Paricfiit.
10.
15.
20.
Here
302 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
Here we have only ?iine and twenty princes of the folar hne between
Ra'ma and Vrihadrana exclulively; and their reigns, during the
whole brazen age, are fuppofed to have lafced near ehht hundred\\\^
Jixty-four thoiifand years, a fuppofition evidently againft nature ; the
uniform courle of which allows only a period of eight hundred and
feventy, or, at the very utmofl, of a thoufand, years for twenty-nine
generations. Pari'cshit, the great nephew and fuccefTor of Yud-
hisht"hir, who had recovered the throne from Duryo'dhan, is al-
lowed without controverfy to have reigned in the interval between the
brazen and earthen ages, and to have died at the fetting in of the Ca-
Uyiig } ib that, if the Pajidits of CaJImhr and Varanes have made a right
calculation of Buddha's appearance, the prefent, ox fourth, age muft
Jiave begun about a thoufand ^^-SiX^ before the birth of Christ, and con-
fequently the reign of Icshwa'cu, could not have been earlier thany^/zr
thoifand years before that great epoch ; and even that date will, per-
haps, appear, when it fliall be ftridlly examined, to be near two thoufand
years earlier than the truth. I cannot leave the third Indian age, in
which the virtues and vices of mankind are faid to have been equal,
without obferving, that even the clofe of it is manifeftly fabulous and
poetical, with hardly more appearance of hiftorical truth, than the tale
oiTroy or of the Argonauts; for Yudhisht"hir, it feems, was the fon
of Dherma, the Genius of Jujlice ; Bhi'ma of Pavan, or the God of
Wind; Arjun of Indra, or the Firmament ; Nacul and Sahade'va,
of the two Cuma'rs, the Castor and Pollux of India ; and Bhi'shma,
their reputed great uncle, was the child of Ganga', or the Ganges,
by Sa'ntanu, whofe brother De'va'pi is fuppofed to be flill alive
in the city of Caldpa ; all which fidlions may be charming embellish-
ments of an heroick poem, but are juft as abfurd in civil Hiflory, as the
defcent of two royal families from the Sun and the Moon.
FOURTH
OF THE HINDUS.
303
FOURTH AGE.
CHILDREN OF THE
SUN.
Urucriya,
Vatfavriddha,
Prativyoma,
Bhanu,
5. Devaca,
Sahadeva,
Vira,
Vrihadas'wa,
Bhanumat,
10. Praticas'wa,
Suprati'ca,
Marudeva,
Sunacfliatra,
Pufhcara,
15. Antaricflia,
Sutapas^
Amitrajit,
Vnhadraja,
Barhi,
20. Critanjaya,
Ran'anjaya,
Sanjaya,
Slocya,
Suddhoda,
25. Langalada,
Prafenajit,
Cflaudraca,
Sumitra, Y. B.C. 2loo.
MOON.
Janamejaya,
Satdnica,
Sahafranica,
As'wamedhaja,
Asimacnihna, 5.
Nemichacra,
Upta,
Chitrarat'ha,
Suchirat'ha,
Dhritimat, 10.
Sufliena,
Sunit'ha,
Nrichacfhuh,
Suc'hinala,
Pariplava, 1 5 .
Sunaya,
Medhavin,
NrTpanjaya,
Derva,
Timi, 20.
Vnhadrat'ha,
Sudafa,
Satanica,
Durmadana,
Rahinara, 25.
Dand'apan'i,
Nimi,
Cfliemaca.
In
304
ON THE CHRONOLOGY
y
In both families, we fee, thirty generations are reckoned from Yurs-
hisht'hir and from Vrihadbala his contemporary (who was killed,
in the war ol Bharat, by Abhimanyu, fon of Arjun and father of
Pari'cshit), to the time, when the Solar and Lunar dynaflies are be-
lieved to. have become extincfl in the prefent divine age ; and for thefe
generations the Hindus allot a period of one thovfand years only, or a
hundred years for tliree generations j which calculation, though proba-
bly too large, is yet moderate enough, compared with their abfurd ac-
counts of the preceding ages : but they reckon exadly the fame num-
ber of years iov twenty generations only in the family of Jara'sandha,
whofe fon was contemporary with Yudhist"hir, and founded a new
dynafty of princes in Magadha, or Bahar ; and this exadl coincidence of
the time, in which the three races are fuppofed to have been extindt,
has the appearance of an artificial chronology, formed rather from ima-
gination than from hiftorical evidence ; efpecially as twenty kings, in an
age comparatively modern, could not have reigned a thoufand years. I,
neverthelefs, exhibit the lift of them as a curiofity ; but am far from
being convinced, that all of them ever exifted : that, if they did exift,
they could not have reigned more \\\2L\\feven hundred yt^irs, I am fully per-
fuaded by the courfe of nature and the concurrent opinion of mankind.
KINGS OF MAGADHA.
5.
10.
Sahadeva,
Marjari,
Srutafravas,
Ayutayufh,
Niramitra,
Sunacftiatra,
Vrihetfena,
Carmajit,
Srutanjaya,
Vipra,
Suchi,
Cfliema,
Suvrata,
Dhermafutra,
Srama, 15.
DrTd 'hafena,
Sumati,
Subala,
Sunita,
Satyajit, 20.
Puran-
OF THE HINDUS. 305
PuRANjAYA, Ion of the twentieth king, was put to death by his
minifter Sunaca, who placed his own fon Pradyo'ta on the throne
of his mafter ; and this revolution conftitutes an epoch of the higheft
importance in our prefent inquiry j firft, becaufe it happened according
to the. Bhagawatdtnrtta, two years exadlly before Buddha's appearance
in the fame kingdom ; next, becaufe it is believed by the Hindus to
have taken place three thoufand eight hundred and eighty-eight years ago,
or two thoufand one hundred years before Christ ; and laftly, becaufe a
regular chronology, according to the number of years in each dynafty,
has been eftabliflied from the acceffion of Pradyo'ta to the fubver-
fion of the genuine Hindu government ; and that chronology I will now
lay before you, after obferving only, that Ra'dha'ca'nt himfelf fays
nothing of Buddha in this part of his work, though he particularly
mentions the two preceding Avatards in their proper places.
KINGS OF MAGADHA.
Y.B.C.
Pradyota, . 2100
Palaca,
Vis'ac'hayupa,
Rajaca,
Nandiverdhana, 5 reigns = 138 years,
Sis'unaga, ..,<.... 19O2
Cacaverna,
Cftiemadherman,
Cfhetrajnya,
Vidhifara, 5.
Ajatafatru,
Darbhaca,
VOL. I. T T KINGS
306 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
KINGS OF MAGADHA.
Y.B.C.
Ajaya,
Nandiverdhana,
Mahanandi, lo r = 36o _y.
Nanda, 1602
This prince, of whom frequent mention is made in the Sanfcrit
books, is faid to have been murdered, after a reign of a hundred years,
by a very learned and ingenious, but paffionate and vindidtive. Brahman,
whofe name was Cha'nacya, and who raifed to the throne a man of
the Maiirya race, named Chandragupta : by the death of Nanda,
and his fons, the Cfiatriya family of Pradyo'ta became extindl.
MAURYA KINGS.
Y.B.C.
Chandragupta, .... . . 1502
Varifara,
As'ocaverdhana,
Suyas'as,
Des'arat'ha, 5.
Sangata,
Salis'uca,
Somas'arman,
Satadhanwas,
Vrihadrat'ha, \o r. = lij y.
On the death of the tenth Maury a king, his place was aflumed by his
Commander in Chief, Pushpamitra, of the ^unga nation or family.
SUNGA
OF THE HINDUS.
307
SUNGA KINGS.
Pufhpamitra,
Agnimitra,
Sujyeflit'ha,
Vafumitra,
Abhadraca, 5.
Pulinda,
Ghofha,
Vajramitra,
Bhagavata,
Devabhuti, 10 r
Y.B.C.
1305
= \\2 y.
The laft prince was killed by his minifler Vasude'va, of the Can'n'a
race, who ufurpcd the throne of Magadha.
CANNA KINGS.
Vafudeva,
Bhiimitra,
Narayana,
Sufarman, 4 r
Y.B.C.
1253
345/.
A Sudra, of the Andhra family, having murdered his mafter Susar-
MAN, and feized the government, founded a new dynafty of
ANDHRA KINGS.
Balin,
Criflina,
I .B.C.
008
Sris'antacarna,
308 ON THE CHRONOLOGY
SnVantacarna,
Paurnamafa,
Lambodara, 5.
Vivilaca,
Meghafwata,
Vat'amana,
Talaca,
Sivafwati, 1 0.
Purifliabheru,
Sunandana,
Chacoraca,
Bat'aca,
Gomatin, 15.
Pun'mat,
Medas'iras,
Sirafcand'ha,
Yajnyas'ri,
Vijaya, 20.
Chandrabija, 21 ^ = 450/.
After the death of Chandrabi'ja, which happened, according to
the Hindus, 396 years before Vicrama'ditya, or 452 B.C. we hear
no more o{ Magadha as an independent kingdom; but Ra'dha'ca'nt
has exhibited the names oi /even dynafties, in vAi\c)\feventy-Jix princes
are faid to have reigned one thou/and three hundred and ninety-nine years
in Avabhriti, a town of the Dacfjin, or South, which we commonly call
Decan : the names of the feven dynafties, or of the families who efta-
blifhed them, are Abhira, Gardabhin, Canca, Tavana, 'Turujijcara, Bhu~
runda, Maula ; of which the Yavanas are by fome, not generally, fup-
pofed to have been lonians, or Greeks, but the TuruJiKaras and Maula s
are univerfally believed to have been Turcs and Moguls -, yet Ra'dha'-
CA'NT
OF THE HINDUS. 3O9
ca'nt adds: "when the Mania race was extindl, five princes, named
" Bhunanda, Bangtra, Sis'unandi, Yas'onandi, and Praviraca, reigned an
" hundred and Jix years (or till the year 1053) in the city of Cilacila,"
which, he tells me, he underftands to be in the country of the Mahd-
rdjhtra's, or Mahrata's ; and here ends his Indian Chronology j for
" after Pravi'raca, fays he, this empire was divided among Mlecfihas,
" or Infidels." This account oi \k\f: feven modern dynajiies appears very
doubtful in itfelf, and has no relation to our prefent inquiry ; for their
dominion feems confined to the Decan, without extending to Magadha;
nor have we any reafon to believe, that a race of Grecian princes ever
eftablifhed a kingdom in either of thofe countries : as to the Moguls, their
dynafty flill fubfifts, at leaft nominally; unlefs that of Chengiz be meant,
and his fucceflbrs could not have reigned in any part of India for the
period of three hundred years, which is affigned to the Manias ; nor is it
probable, that the word 'Turc, which an Indian could have eafily pro-
nounced and clearly exprefTed in the Nagari letters, fliould have been
corrupted into Turujhcara. On the whole we may fafely clofe the mofl
authentick fyftem of Hindu Chronology, that I have yet been able to
procure, with the death of Chandrabi'ja. Should any farther infor-
mation be attainable, we fliall, perhaps, in due time attain it either from
books or infcriptions in the Sanfcrit language ; but from the materials,
with which we are at prefent fupplied, we may eftablifli as indubitable
the two following propofitions ; that the three Jirji ages of the Hindus
are chiefly mythological, whether their mythology was founded on the
dark enigmas of their aftronomers or on the heroick fidions of their
poets, and, thii th.& fourth, or hijiorical, age cannot be carried farther back
than about two thqufand years before Christ. Even in the hiftory of
the prefent age, the generations of men and the reigns of kings are ex-
tended beyond the courfe of nature, and beyond the average refulting
from the accounts of the Brdhmans themfelves ; for they aflign to an
hundred and forty-two modern reigns a period of three thoufand one hun-
dred
310
ON THE CHRONOLOGY
dred and ffty-three years, or about twenty-two years to a reign one with
another j yet they reprefent only four Canna princes on the throne of
Mngadha for a period of three hundred and forty-Jive years j now it is
even more improbable, that four fucceffive kings ihould have reigned
eighty-fix years and four months each, than that Nanda fhould have
been king a hundred years and murdered at laft. Neither account can
be credited ; but, that we may allow the higheft probable antiquity to
the Hindu government, let us grant, that three generations of men were
equal on an average to an hundred years, and that Indian princes have
reicrned, one with another, two and twenty : then reckoning thirty gene-
rations from Arjun, the brother of Yudhisht'hira, to the extiniftion
of his race, and taking the Chinefe account of Buddha's birth from
M. DeGuignes, as the moft authentick medium between Abu'lfazl
and the Tiktians, we may arrange the correded Hindu Chronology ac-
cording to the following table, fupplying the word about or iiearlyy
(fince perfedl accuracy cannot be attained and ought not to be re-
quired), before every date.
Y.B.C
Abhimanyu
fon o/' Arjun,
202g
Pradyota,
1029
Buddha,
• ••■••
1027
Nanda,
699
Balin,
• • • • •
149
Vicrama'ditya,
56
De'vapa'la, king (9/"Gaur,
23
If we take the date of Buddha's appearance from Abu'lfazl, we
muft place Abhimanyu 2368 years before Christ, unlefs we calculate
from the twenty kings of Magadha, and allow feven hundred years, in-
ftead of ^ thoufand, between Arjun and Pradyo'ta, which will bring
us
OF THE HINDUS. 3 1 1
us again very nearly to the date exhibited in the table ; and, perhaps,
we can hardly approach nearer to the truth. As to Rdjiz Nanda, if he
really fat on the throne a whole century, we mufi: bring down the Attdhra
dynafty to the age of Vicrama'ditya, who with his feudatories had
probably obtained fo much power during the reign of thofe princes, that
they had little more than a nominal fovereignty, which ended with
Chandrabi'ja in the third or fourth century of the Chrijlian era;
having, no doubt, been long reduced to infignificance by the kings of
Gaur, defcended from Go'pa'la. But, if the author of the Dabijianhe
warranted in fixing the birth of Buddha ten years before the Caliyug^
we muft thus corred: the Chronological Table :
Y.B.C.
Buddha, ..... 1027
Paricfliit, . . . . . 1017
Pradyot (reckoning 20 or 30 generations), . 317 or 17
Y.A.C.
Nanda, , . . . . . . 1 3 or 3 1 3
This corredlion would oblige us to place Vicrama'ditya before
Nanda, to whom, as all the Pandits agree, he was long pofterior,-
and, if this be an hiflorical fadt, it feems to confirm the Bhagawa-
tdmrtta, which fixes the beginning of the Caliyug about a thou/and
years before Buddha ; befides that Balin would then be brought
down at leafl to the fixth and Chandrabi'ja to the tenth century
after Christ, without leaving room for the fubfequent dynafties, if
they reigned fucceilively.
Thus have we given a fketch of Indian Hiftory through the longeft
period fairly affignable to it, aad have traced the foundation of the
Indian
312 ON THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE HINDUS.
India): empire above three thou/and eight hundred years from the prefent
time ; but, on a fubjecfl in itfelf fo obfcure, and fo much clouded by the
fidlions of the Brdhmans, who, to aggrandize themfelves, have defignedly
raifed their antiquity beyond the truth, we muft be fatisfied with proba-
ble conjedlure and jufl realoning from the beft attainable data; nor can
W€ hope for a fyftem oi Indian Chronology, to which no objedtion can
be made, unlefs the Aftronomical books in Sanfcrit fhall clearly afcer-
tain the places of the colures in fome precife years of the hiftorical age,
not by loofe traditions, like that of a coarfe obfervation by Chiron,
who poffibly never exifted (for "he lived, fays Newton, in xhc golden
*' age," which muft long have preceded the Argonautick expedition),
but by fuch evidence as our aftronomers and fchoiars fliall allow to be
unexceptionable.
A CHRO-
^•,
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE,
According to one of the Hypotheses intimated in the preceding TraSf.
CHRISTIAN
HINDU.
Tears from 1788
^WMUSELMAN,
of our era.
Adam,
Menu I. Age
I.
5794
Noah,
Menu II.
4737
Deluge,
4138
Nimrod,
Hiranyacajipu.
Age II.
4006
Bel,
Bali,
3892
Rama,
Rama. Age III.
3817
Noah's death,
3787
Pradyota,
2817
Buddha. Age
:IV.
2815
Nandat
2487
Balin,
1937
Vicramaditya,
1844
Devapdla,
1811
Christ,
1787
Ndrdyanpdla,
1721
Saca,
1709
Walid,
1080
Mahmud,
786
Chengiz,
548
Taimiir,
391
Babur,
276
Nddirjhah,
49
VOL. I.
u u
SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
ON
INDIAN CHRONOLOGY.
The president.
Our ingenious affociate Mr. Samuel Davis, whom I name with
refpedl and applaufe, and who will foon, I truft, convince M. Bailly»
that it is very poffible, for an European to tranflate and explain the
Surya Siddhdnta, favoured me lately with a copy, taken by his Pandit,
of the original paflage, mentioned in his paper on tlie Agronomical
Computations of the Hindus, concerning the places of the colures in the
time of Vara'ha, compared with their poiition in the age of a certain
Muni, or ancient Indian philofopher -, and the palfage appears to afford
evidence of two adlual obfervations, which will afcertain the chronology
of the Hindus, if not by rigorous demonftration, at leaft by a near
approach to it.
The copy of the Vdrdhifanhita, from which the three pages, received
by me, had been tranfcribed, is unhappily fo incorred (if the tranfcript
itfelf was not haftily made) that every line of it muft be disfigured by
fome
316 A SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
fome grofs errour ; and my Pandit, who examined the pafTage carefully
at his own houfe, gave it up as inexplicable j fo that, if I had not
ftudied the fyftem of Sayifcrit profody, I fliould have laid it afide in de-
fpair : but though it was written as profe, without any fort of diftinc-
tion or punftuation, yet, when I read it aloud, my ear caught in fome
fentences the cadence of verfe, and of a particular metre, called A'rya,
which is regulated (not by the number of fyllables^ like other Indian
meafures, but) by the proportion of times, ox fyllabick moments, in the
four divifions, of which every ftanza confifts. By numbering thofe
moments and fixing their proportion, I was enabled to reflore the text
of Var a'ha, with the perfe»5t aflent of the learned Brahmen, who attends
me; and, with his afllftance, I alfo corrected the comment, written by
Bhatto'tpala, who, it feems, was a fon of the author, together with
three curious paflages, which are cited in it. Another Pandit afterwards
brought me a copy of the whole original work, which confirmed my
conjedlural emendations, except in two immaterial fyllables, and except,
that the firft of the fix couplets in the text is quoted in the commentary
from a different work entitled Panchafiddhdntica : five of them were
compofed by Var a'ha himfelf, and the third chapter of his treatife
begins with them.
Before I produce the original verfes, it may be ufeful to give you an
idea of the A'rya meafure, which will appear more diftindlly in hatin
than in any modern language of Europe :
Tigridas, apros, thoas, tyrannos, pelTima monflra, venemur :
Die hinnulus, die lepus male quid egerint graminivori.
The couplet might be fo arranged, as to begin and end with the cadence
of an hexameter and pentameter, fix mo?nents being interpofed in the
middle of the long, and feven in that of the fhort, hemiflich :
Thoas,
ON INDIAN CHRONOLOGY. 317
Thoas, apros, tigridas nos 'venemur, pejorefque tyrannos ;
Die tibi cerva, lepus tibi die male quid egerit herbivorus.
Since the A'rya meafure, however, may be ahiioft infinitely varied, the
couplet would have a form completely Roman, if the proportion of
fyllabick injiants, in the long and fliort verfes, were twenty-four to
twenty, inflead of thirty to twenty-feven :
Venor apros tigridafque, et, peffima monftra, tyrannos :
Cerva mali quid agunt herbivorufque lepus ?
I now exhibit the five ftanzas of Vara'ha in European characters,
with an etching of the two firft, which are the moft important, in the
original Devanagart :
As'lefhardhaddacfhinamuttaramayanan raverdhaniflit''hadyan
Nunan cadachiddsidyenodlan purva s'aftrefhu.
Sampratamayanan favituh carcat'acadyan mrigaditas'chanyat :
Udlabhave vicritih pratyacfliapericfhanair vyaftih.
Duraft'hachihnavedyadudaye'llamaye'piva fahafranfoh,
Ch'hayapraves'anirgamachihnairva mandale mahati.
Aprapya macaramarco vinivritto hanti faparan yamyan,
Carcat'acamafanprapto vinivrittas'chottaran faindrin.
Uttaramayanamatitya vyavrittah cfhemas'afya vriddhicafah,
Pracritift'has'chapyevan vicritigatir bhayacriduflmans'uh.
Of the five couplets thus exhibited, the following tranflation is moft
fcrupuloufly literal :
" Certainly the fouthern folflice was once in the middle of
** As'leJJoa, the northern in the firfl: degree oi DhaniJJjt'ha, by what is
" recorded
318 A SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
*' recorded in former Sdjlras. At prefent one folftice is in the firfl: de-
" gree of Carcata, and the other in the firft of Macara : that which is
" recorded, not appearing, a change jnuji have happened ; and the proof
*' arifes from ocular demonftrations ; that is, by obferving the remote
** objedl and its marks at the rifing or fetting of the fun, or by the
*' marks, in a large graduated circle, of the Shadow's ingrefs and egrefs.
** The fun, by turning back without having reached Macara, deftroys
" the fouth and the weft ; by turning back without having reached
** Carcata, the north and eaft. By returning, when he has juft pafTed
*' the fummer foHlitial point, he makes wealth fecure and grain abund-
** ant, fince he moves thus according to nature ; but the fun, by mov-
*' ing unnaturally, excites terrour."
' Now the Hindu Aftronomers agree, that the ift January 1700 was
in the year 4891 of the Caliyuga, or t\\Q\v fourth period, at the begin-
ning of which, they fay, the equinoctial points were in the firft degrees
oi MeJJm and Tula ; but they are alfo of opinion, that the vernal equinox
ofcillates from the third of Mina to the twenty-feventh of Me/ha and
back again in 7200 years, which they divide into four pddas, and confe-
quently that it moves, in the two intermediate pddas, from the firft to
the twenty-feventh oi Mefia and back again in 3()00 years ; the colure
cutting their ecliptick in the firft oi Mejha, which coincides with the
firft of yJfwin), at the beginning of every fuch ofcillatory period. Va-
RA'HA, furr.amed Mihira, or the Sun, from his knowledge of aftro-
nomy, and ufually diftinguiftied by the title of Achdrya, or teacher of the
Veda, lived confefledly, when the Caliyuga was far advanced ; and, fince
by adtual obfervation he found the folftitial points in the firft degrees of
Carcata and Macara, the equinodlial points were at the fame time in
the firft of Me Jh a and Tula: he lived, therefore, in the year 3Goo of
the fourth Indian period, or 1291 years before ift January 1 "00, that
is, about the year -Kjo of our era. This date correfponds with the
ayandnfa,
ON INDIAN CHRONOLOGY. 319
ayananfa, or preceffion, calculated by the rule of the Siirya Jiddhdnta;
for 19° 21' 54" would be the precefTion of the equinox in 1291 years
according to the Hindu computation of 5a" annually, which gives us
the origin of the Itidian Zodiack nearly; but, by Newton's demonftra-
tions, which agree as well with the phenomena, as the varying denfity of
our earth will admit, the equinox recedes about 5o" every year, and has
receded 17° 55' 5o" fince the time of Vara'ha, which gives us more
nearly In our own fphere the firil; degree of Mejha in that of the Hindus.
By the obfervation recorded in older Sajlras, the equinox had gone back
23° 20', or about 1680 years had intervened, between the age of the
Muni and that of the modern aftronomer: the former obfervation,
therefore, mufl have been made about 297 1 years before ift 'January
1790, that is, iiSl before Christ.
We come now to the commentary, which contains information of the
greateft importance. By former Sdjlras are meant, fays Bh atto'tp al A,
the books of Para's ar a and of other M««w j and he then cites from
the Pdrdfari Sanhitd the following paffage, which is in modulated profe
and in a ftyle much refembling that of the Fedas :
Sraviflitadyat paufhnardhantan charah s'is'iro; vafantah paufhnardhat
rohinyantan ; faumyadyadas'lefhardhantan griflimah ; pravrid'as'lefhar-
dhat haftantan; chitradyat jysfht"hardhantan s'arat; hemanto jyefht'-
'hardhat vaiflin'avantan.
" The feafon of Sis'ira is from the firil of Dhanijlifha to the middle
" of Revati ; that of Vafanta from the middle of Revati to the end of
" Rohint ; that of Grijkma from the beginning of Mrigas'iras to the
" middle of Js leJJ:d ; that of Ferpd from the middle of As'leJJm to the
" end of Hajla ; that of Sarad from the firil of Chitrd to the middle
" of
320 A SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
" of JycJIjt'ha ; that of Hemanta from the middle of Jyept'ha to the
" end oi Sravafia."
This account of the fix Indian feafons, each of which is co-extenfive
with two figns, or four lunar ftations and a half, places the folftitial
points, as Vara'HA has aflerted, in the firfl: degree oi DhaniJJ^t'ha, and
the middle, or 0° 4o', oi AsleJIni, while the equinodlial points were in
Xki& tenth degree oi Bharani and 3° 2o' oi Vis' dc ha ; but, in the time
of Vara'HA, the folftitial colure paffed through the loth degree of
Punarvafu and 3° 2o' of Uttardjhdra, while the equinocftial colure cut
the Hindu ecliptick in the firft of Afwini and G*^ 40' of Chitra, or
the Toga and only ftar of that manfion, which, by the way, is indu-
bitably the Spike of the Virgin, from the known longitude of which all
other points in the Indian Zodiack may be computed. It cannot efcape
notice, that Para'sara does not ufe in this paiTage the phrafe at pre-
fent^ which occurs in the t«xt of Vara'ha ^ fo that the places of the
colures might have been afcertained befoi'e his time, and a confiderable
change mif^ht have happened in their true pofition without any change
in the phrafes, by which the feafons were diftinguiflied ; as our popular
language in aftronomy remains unaltered, though the Zodiacal afterifms
are now removed a whole fign from the places, where they have left
their names : it is manifeft, neverthelefs, that Para'sara muft have
written -ivithin twelve centuries before the beginning of our era, and that
fingle fad, as we fliall prefently fhow, leads to very momentous confe-
quences in regard to the fyftem of Indian hiftory and literature.
On the comparifon, which might eafily be made, between the colures
of Para'sar and thofe afcribed by EuDoxus to Chiron, the fuppofed
afliflant and inftrudor of the Argonauts, I fhall fay very little ; becaufe
the whole Argonautick flory (which neither was, according to Hero-
dotus, nor, indeed, could have been, originally Grmi««y', appears, even
when
ON INDIAN CHRONOLOGY, 321
when ftripped of its poetical and fabulous ornaments, extremely difput-
able i and, whether it was founded on a league of the Helladian princes
and ftates for the purpofe of checking, on a favourable opportunity, the
overgrown power of Egypt, or with a view to fecure the commerce of
the Ettxine and appropriate the wealth of Colchis, or, as I am difpofed to
believe, on an emigration from Africa and Afia of that adventurous
race, who had firfl been eftablifhed in Chaldea; whatever, in fhort, gave
rife to the fable, which the old poets have fo richly embelliflied, and
the old hiftorians have fo inconfiderately adopted, it feems to me very
clear, even on the principles of Newton, and on the fame authorities
to which he refers, that the voyage of the Argonauts mufl: have preceded
the year, in which his calculations led him to place it. Bat T us built
Cyrene, fays our great philofopher, on the fite of Irafa, the city of
Ant^us, in the year 633 before Christ -, yet he foon after calls
EuRiPYLUs, with whom the Argonauts had a conference, king of
Cyrene, and in both paflages he cites Pindar, whom I acknowledge to
have been the mofl learned, as well as the fublimeft, of poets. Now,
if I underftand Pindar (which I will not aflert, and I neither poffefs
nor remember at prefent the Scholia, which I formerly perufed) the
fourth Pythian Ode begins with a fliort panegyrick on Arcesilas of
Cyrene -, " Where, fays the bard, the prieftefs, who fat near the golden
" eagles of Jove, prophefied of old, when Apollo was not abfent
" from his manfion, that Battus, the colonizer of fruitful Lybia,
" having juft left the facred ille fTheraJ, fliould build a city excell-
" ing in cars, on the fplendid breaft of earth, and, with the feventeenth
" generation, fliould refer to himfelf the Therean predidlion of Medea,
" which that princefs of the Colckians, that impetuous daughter of
" ^ETES, breathed from her immortal mouth, and thus delivered to the
" half-divine mariners of the warriour Jason." From this introduc-
tion to the noblefl and moft animated of the Argonautick poems, it ap-
pears, \S\dX fifteen complete generations had intervened between the voyage
VOL. I. XX of
322 A SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
of Jason and the emigration of Battus ; fo that, confidering three ge-
nerations as equal to an hundred ox an hundred and twenty years, which
Newton admits to be the Grecian mode of computing them, we muft
place that voyage at X&'i.^Jive ox fix hundred years before the time fixed
by Newton himfelf, according to his own computation, for the
building of Cyrene; that is, eleven or twelve hundred and thirty-three
years before Christ; an age very near on a medium to that of
Para'sara. If the poet means afterwards to fay, as I underfland him,
that Arcesilas, his contemporary, was the eighth in defcent from Bat-
tus, we fliall draw nearly the fame conclufion, without having recourfe
to the unnatural reckoning oi thirty -three ox forty yczxs to a generation ;
for Pindar was forty years old, when the Perfians, having crofled the
Hellefpont, were nobly refilled at T'hermopylce and glorioufly defeated at
Salamis : he was born, therefore, about the fixty-fifth Olympiad, or five
hundred and twenty years before our era ; fo that, by allowing more
naturally y^A' ox f even hundred years to twenty-three generations, we may
at a medium place the voyage of Jason about one thoufand one hun-
dred and feventy years before our Saviour, or dhont forty -fve years be-
fore the beginning of the Newtonian chronology.
The defcription of the old colures by Eudoxus, if we implicitly rely
on his teftimony and that of Hipparchus, who was, indifputably, a
great aflronomer for the age, in which he lived, affords, I allow, fuffi-
cient evidence of fome rude obfervation about 937 years before the
Chrifian epoch ; and, if the cardinal points had receded from thofe
colures 30° 2cj' 10" at the beginning of the year 1690, and 37*^ 52' 3o"
on the firfl of January in the prefent year, they muft have gone back
3^ 23' 20 ' between the obfervation implied by Para'sar and that re-
corded by Eudoxus ; or, in other words, 2-14 years mufl have elapfed
between the two obfervations : but, this difquifition having little rela-
tion to our principal fubjed:, I proceed to the lafl couplets of our Indian
aflronomer
ON INDIAN CHRONOLOGY. 32
o
aftronomer Vara'ha Mihira, which, though merely aftrologlcal and
confequently abfurd, will give occafion to remarks of no fmall import-
ance. They imply, that, when the folftices are not in the firft degrees
of Carcata and Macara, the motion of the fun is contrary to nature, and
being caufed, as the commentator intimates, by fome utpdta, or preter-
natural agency, muft neceflarily be produd:ive of misfortune ; and this
vain idea feems to indicate a very fuperficial knowledge even of the
fyftem, which Vara'ha undertook to explain; but he might have
adopted it folely as a religious tenet, on the authority of Garga, a
prieft of eminent fandlity, who expreffes the fame wild notion in the.
following couplet :
Yada nivertate'praptah fraviflitamuttarayane,
Afleflian dacfhine'praptaftadavidyanmahadbhayan
" When the fun returns, not having reached Dhanij7:)t' ha in the
** northern folftice, or not having reached As'lejha in the fouthern, then
** let a man feel great apprehenfion of danger."
Para'sara himfelf entertained a fimilar opinion, that any irregu-
larity in the foliHces would indicate approaching calamity : Yadapraptb
vaijhnavantam, fays he, iidanmdrge prepadyate, dacjhine aJleJJ:am vd ma-
hdbhaynya, that is, " When, having reached the end of Sravand, in
" the northern path, or half o{ AsleJIoa in the fouthern, he Itill ad-
" vances, it is a caufe of great fear." This notion pofTibly had its rife,
before the regular preceflion of the cardinal points had been obferved;
but we may alfo remark, that fome of the lunar manfions were con-
fidered as inaufpicious, and others as fortunate: thus Menu, the firll
Indian lawgiver, ordains, that certain rites fliall be performed under the
influence of a happy Nacpatra ; and, where he forbids any female name
to be taken from a conftellation, the moil learned commentator gives
A'rdrd
324 A SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
A'rdra and Rhati as examples of ill omened names, appearing by de-
lign to fkip over others, that muft firft have occurred to him. Whether
Dhanipt'ha and As'lejlm were inaufpicious or profperous, I have not
learned; but, whatever might be the ground of Vara'ha's aftrological
rule, we may colleft from his aftronomy, which was grounded on ob-
fervation, that the folftice had receded at leaft 23" 2o' between his time
and that of Para'sara; for, though he refers its pofition to they%-«j,
inftead of the lunar man/tons, yet all the Pandits, with whom I have
converfed on the fubjedl, unanimoufly affert, that the firft degrees of
Mefba and Afwint are coincident : fince the two ancient fages name only
the lunar afterlfms, it is probable, that the folar divifion of the Zodiack
into twelve figns was not generally ufed in their daysj and we know
from the comment on the Siirya Siddhdnta, that the lunar month, by
which all religious ceremonies are ftill regulated, was in ufe before the
folar. When M. Bailly afks, " why the Hindus eftabliftied the be-
" ginning of the preceffion, according to their ideas of it, in the year of
" Christ 4gy," to which his calculations alfo had led him, we anfwer,
becaufe in that year the vernal equinox was found by obfervation in the
origin of their ecliptick ; and fince they were of opinion, that it muft
have had the fame pofition in the firft year of the Caliyuga, they were
induced by their erroneous theory to fix the beginning of their fourth
period 30oo years before the time of Vara'ha, and to account for
Para'sara's obfervation by fuppofing an utpdta, ov prodigy.
To what purpofe, it may be alked, have we afcertained the age of
the Munis? Who was Para's ara ? Who was Garga? With whom
were they contemporary, or with whofe age may theirs be compared ?
What light will thefe inquiries throw on the hiftory of India or of man-
kind ? I am happy in being able to anfwer thofe queftions with con-
fidence and precifion.
All
ON INDIAN CHRONOLOGY. 325
All the Brahmens agree, that only one Para'sara is named in their
facred records ; that he compofed the agronomical book before-cited,
and a law-tradl, which is now in my pofTeffion ; that he was the grand-
fon of Vasisht'ha, another aftronomer and legiflator, whofe works are
ftill extant, and who was the preceptor of Ra'ma, king oi Ayodliya ;
that he was the father of Vya'sa, by whom the Vedas were arranged
in the form, which they now bear, and whom Crishna himfelf names
with exalted praife in the Gita ; fo that, by the admiiTion of the Pandits
themfelves, we find only three generations between two of theRA'iviAs,
whom they confider as incarnate portions of the divinity ; and Par a'sar
might have lived till the beginning of the Caliyuga, which the miftaken
dodtrine of an ofcillation in the cardinal points has compelled the Hindus
to place 1920 years too early. This errour, added to their fanciful ar-
rangement of the four ages, has been the fource of many abfurdities ;
for they infift, that Va'lmic, whom they cannot but allow to have been
contemporary with Ra'machandra, lived in the age of Vya'sa, who
confulted him on the compofition of the Mahdbhdrat, and who was
perfonally known to Balara'ma, the brother of Crishna: when a
very learned Brahmen had repeated to me an agreeable ftory of a con-
verfation between Va'lmic and Vya'sa, I exprefled my furprize at an
interview between two bards, whofe ages were feparated by a period of
864,000 years ; but he foon reconciled himfelf to fo monftrous an ana-
chronifm, by obferving that the longevity of the Munis was preter-
natural, and that no limit could be fet to divine power. By the fame
recourfe to miracles or to prophefy, he would have anfwered another
objedtion equally fatal to his chronological fyftem : it is agreed by all,
that the lawyer Ya'g yawalcya was an attendant on the court of Ja-
naca, whofe daughter Si'ta' was the conftant, but unfortunate, wife
of the great Ra'ma, the hero of Va'lmic's poem; but that lawyer
himfelf, at the very opening of his work, which now lies before me,
names both Para'sar and Vya'sa among twenty authors, whofe trails
form
325 A SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
form, the body of original Indian law. By the way, (ince Vasisht'ha is
more than once named in the Mdnaiifanhita, we may be certain, that
the laws afcribed to Menu, in whatever age they might have been firft
promulgated, could not have received the form, in which we now fee
them, above three thoiifand years ago. The age and functions of
Garga lead to confequences yet more interefting : he was confefledly
ihc purdhita, or officiating prieft, of Crishna himfelf, who, when only
a herdfman's boy at Mafhura, revealed his divine charafter to Garga,
by running to him with more than mortal benignity on his countenance,
when the prieft had invoked Na ra'yan. His daughter was eminent
for her piety and her learning, and the Brdbmans admit, without con-
fidering the confequence of their admiffion, that flie is thus addreffed
in the Veda itfelf; Yata urdliwan no vd famopi, Ga'rgi, ejlja ddityo
dydmurdhanan tapati, dya va bhumin tapati, bbiimya Jubhran tapati, locdn
tapati, antaran tapatyanantaran tapati; or, " That Sun, O daughter of
" Garga, than which nothing is higher, to which nothing is equal,
" enlightens the fummit of the Iky ; with the Iky enlightens the earth ;
" with the earth enlightens the lower worlds ; enlightens the higher
" worlds, enlightens other worlds ; it enlightens the breaft, enlightens
" all befides the breaft." From thefe facSs, which the Brdhmans can-
not deny, and from thefe conceffions, which they unanimoufly make,
we may reafonably infer, that, if Vya s a was not the compofer of the
Vedas, he added at Icaft fomething of his own to the fcattered frag-
ments of a more ancient work, or perhaps to the loofe traditions, which
he had coUedled ; but, whatever be the comparative antiquity of the
Hindu fcriptures, we may fafely conclude, that the Mofaick and Indian
chronologies are perfectly confiftent ; that Menu, fon of Brahma',
was the A'dima, ox Jirjl, created mortal, and confequently our Adam ;
that Menu, child of the Sun, was preferved vi\\\\ feven others, in a
bahitra or capacious ark, from an univerfal deluge, and muft, therefore,
be our Noah j that Hiranyacasipu, the giant with a golden axe,
and
ON INDIAN CHRONOLOGY. 327
and Vali or Bali, were impious and arrogant monarchs, and, mofl: pro-
bably, our NiMROD and Belus ; that the three Ra'mas, two of whom
were invincible warriors, and the third, not only valiant in war, but
the patron of agriculture and ivine, which derives an epithet from his
name, were different reprefentations of the Grecian Bacchus, and either
the Ra'm A of Scripture, or his colony perfonified, or the Sun firft adored
by his idolatrous family, that a confiderable emigration from Chaldea
into Greece, Italy, and India, happened about twelve centuries before
the birth of our Saviour j that Sa'cya, or Si'sak, about two hundred
years after Vva'sa, either in perfon or by a colony from Egypt, im-
ported into this country the mild herefy of the ancient Bauddhas ; and
that the dawn of true Indian hiftory appears only three or four centuries
before the Chrijiian era, the preceding ages being clouded by allegory
or fable.
As a fpccimen of that fabling and allegorizing fpirit, which has ever
induced the Brahmens to difguife their whole fyftem of hiitory, philofo-
phy, and religion, I produce a paffagc from the Bhdgavat, which, how-
ever ftrange and ridiculous, is very curious in itfelf and clofely con-
nedted with the fubjedt of this effay : it is taken from the fifth Scafidha,
or fedlion, which is written in modulated profe. " There are fome,
* fays the Indian author, who, for the purpofe of meditating intenfely
* on the holy fon of Vasude'va, imagine yon celeftial fphere to re-
' prefent the figure of that aquatick animal, which we call Sis'umdra:
' its head being turned downwards, and its body bent in a circle, they
' conceive Dhruva, or the pole-flar, to be fixed on the point of its
' tail J on the middle part of the tail they fee four ftars, Prejdpati,
* ylgni, Indra, Dherma, and on its bafe two others, Dbdtri and
' Vidhdtrt: on its rump are the Septarjlois, or feven ftars of the Sacata,
* or JVain ; on its back the path of the Sun, called Ajavit'lii, or the
* Series of Kids ; on its belly the Ganga of the fky : Punarvafu and
" Pitjhya
328 A SUPPLEMENT TO THE ESSAY
*• Pujl.'ya gleam refpeftively on its right and left haunches j A'rdra and
*' Aslejha on its right and left feet orjins ; ylbhijit and UttardJJmd'' ha in
*' its right and left noftrils ; Sravana and Purvdfiad'ha in its right and
*' left eyes J DhaniJJ.i'ha and Mula on its right and left ears. Eight con-
" ftellations, belonging to the fummer folftice, Maghd, Purvap'halgiim,
** Vttarap'halguni^ Hajla, Chitrd, Swat}, Vifdcha, Anurddha, may be
" conceived in the ribs of its left fide j and as many afterifms, con-
" nefted with the winter folftice, Mrigas'iras, Rohini, Critticd^ Bba-
" rani, Afwim, Revati, Vttarabhadrapadd, Purvabhadrapadd, may be
** imagined on the ribs of its right fide in an inverfe order : let Satab-
" hij}:id and Jyejht'hd be placed on its right and left fhoulders. In its
" upper jaw is Jgajlya, in its lower Yama ; in its mouth the planet
" Mangala ; in its part of generation, Sanais chara ; on its hump, Vri-
** hajpati ; in its breafi:, the Sun ; in its heart, Nd?-dyan ; in its front
•* the moon ; in its navel. Us' anas ; on its two nipples the two Afwinas ;
*' in its afcending and defcending breaths, Budha ; on its throat, Rdbii -,
" in all its limbs, Cctus, or comets ; and in its hairs, or briflles, the
" whole multitude of liars." It is necefiary to remark, that, although
the s'isumdra be generally defcribed as the fea-hog, or porpoife, which
we frequently have feen playing in the Ganges, yet/u/mdr, which feems
derived from the Sanfcrit, means in Perjian a large lizard: the paflage
juft exhibited may neverthelefs relate to an animal of the cetaceous
order, and poflibly to the dolphin of the ancients. Before I leave the
fphere of the Hindus, I cannot help mentioning a fingular fad: : in the
Sanfcrit language Ricflm means a confidlation and a bear, fo that Ma-
harcfia may denote either a great bear or a great afierifm. Etymologifts
may, perhaps, derive the Megas arctos of the Greeks from an Indian
compound ill underftood ; but I will only obferve, with the wild Ame-
rican, that a bear with a very long tail could never have occurred to the
imagination of any one, who had feen the animal. I may be permitted
to add, on the fubjeft of the Indian Zodiack, that, if I have erred, in a
former
ON INDIAN CHRONOLOGY. 329
former effay, where the longitude of the lunar manfions is computed
from the firft ftar in our conftellation of the Ram, I have been led into
errour by the very learned and ingenious M. Bailly, who relied, I pre-
fume, on the authority of M. Le Gentil : the origin of the Hindu Zo-
diack, according to the Siirya Siddbdnta, muft be nearly T \q^ 2i' 54'',
in our fphere, and the longitude of Chitrd, or the Spike, muft of
courfe be 199*' 21' 54" from the vernal equinox ; but, fince it is diffi-
cult by that computation, to arrange the twenty-feven manfions and
their feveral ftars, as they are delineated and enumerated in the Retna-
mdld, I muft for the prefent fuppofe with M. Bailly, that the Zodiack
of the Hindus had two origins, one conftant and the other variable ;
and a fartiier inquiry into the fubjedt muft be referved for a feafoa of
retirement and leifure.
VOL. I. Y Y
NOTE
TO
MR. VANSITT ART'S PAPER
ON
THE AFGHANS BEING DESCENDED FROM THE JEWS.
By the president.
A HIS account of the Afghans may lead to a very interefting dilco-
very. We learn from Esdras, that the Ten Tribes, after a wandering
journey, came to a country called Arfareth ; where, we may fuppofe,
they fettled : now the Afghans are faid by the beft Perjian hiftorians to
be defcended from the Jews ; they have traditions among themfelves of
fuch a defcent -, and it is even aflerted, tliat their families are diftin-
guiflied by the names of Jewifi tribes, although, ilnce their converfion
to the IJJdm, they ftudioufly conceal their origin ^ the Pupto lano-uage,
of which I liave feen a didlionary, has a manifeft refemblance to the
Chaldaick; and a confiderable diflridl under their dominion is called
Hazdreh, or Hazard, which might eafily have been changed into the
word ufed by Esdras. I ftrongly recommend an inquiry into the
literature and hiftory of the Afghans.
ON
THE ANTIQUITY
OF
THE INDIAN ZODIACK.
By the president.
X ENGAGE to fupport an opinion (which the learned and induftrious
M. MoNTUCLA feems to treat with extreme contempt), that the Indian
diviiion of the Zodiack was not borrowed from the Greeks or Arabs^
but, having been known in this country from time immemorial, and
being tlie fame in part with that ufed by other nations of the old Hindu
race, was probably invented by the firft progenitors of that race before
their difperfion. " The Indians, he fays, have two divilions of the
" Zodiack J one, like that of the Arabs, relating to the moon, and con-
*• filling of twenty-feven equal parts, by which they can tell very nearly
" the hour of the night; another relating to the fun, and, like ours, con-
" taining twelve figns, to which they have given as many names cor-
♦* refponding with thofe, which we have borrowed from the Greeks."
All that is true; but he adds : *' It is highly probable that they received
" them at fome time or another by the intervention of the Arabs; for
" no man, furely, can perfuade himfelf, that it is the ancient divifion of
" the Zodiack formed, according to fome authors, by the forefathers of
** mankind and ftill preferved among the Hindus." Now I undertake
to
334 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF
to prove, that the Indian Zodiack was not borrowed mediately or diredly
from the y4rabs or Greeks ; and, fince the folar divifion of it in India is
the fame in fubflance with that ufed in Greece, we may reafonably con-
clude, that both Greeks and Hindus received it from an older nation, who
firft gave names to the luminaries of heaven, and from whom both
Greeks and Hindus, as their fimilarity in language and religion fully
evinces, had a common defcent.
The fame writer afterwards intimates, that " the time, when Indian
" Aftronomy received its moll: confiderable improvement, from which
" it has now, as he imagines, wholly declined, was either the age,
" when the Arabs, who ellabliflied themfelves in Perjia and Sogdiana,
" had a great intercourfe with the Hindus, or that, when the fuccefTors
" of Chengi'z united both Arabs and Hindus under one vaft domi-
" nion." It is not the objed: of this effay, to corred: the hiflorical
errors in the palTage laft- cited, nor to defend the aflronomers o^ India
from the charge of grofs ignorance in regard to the figure of the earth
and the diftances of the heavenly bodies ; a charge, which Montucla
very boldly makes on the authority, I believe, of father Souciet : I
will only remafk, that, in our converfations with the Pandits, we mufl
never confound the fyfVem of the Jyautifiicas, or mathematical aflrono-
mers, with that of the Paurdnicas, or poetical fabulifts; for to fuch a
confufion alone muft we impute the many miftakes oi Europeans on the
fubjed oi Indian fcience. A venerable mathematician of this province,
named Ra'm achandra, now in his eightieth year, vifited me lately at
Crijhnanagar, and part of his difcourfe was lb applicable to the inquiries,
which I was then making, that, as foon as he left me, I committed it to
writing. " The Paurdnics, he faid, will tell you, that our earth is a
" plane fi^^ure ftudded with eight mountains, and furrounded by feven
" feas of milk, nedar, and other fluids; that the part, which we in-
" habit, is one of fevcn iflands, to which eleven fmaller ides are fubor-
*' dinatc;
THE INDIAN ZODIACK. 335
*' dinate ; that a God, riding on a huge elephant, guards each of the
" eight regions ; and that a mountain of gold rifes and gleams in the
*' centre; but we believe the earth to be fhaped like a Cadamba fruit,
" or fpheroidal, and admit only four oceans of fait water, all which we
** name from the four cardinal points, and in which are many great
" peninfulas with innumerable iflands : they will tell you, that a
" dragon's head fwallows the moon, and thus caufes an eclipfe; but we
*' know, that the fuppofed head and tail of the dragon mean only the
** nodes, or points formed by interfedlions of the ecliptick and the
*' moon's orbit; in fhort, they have imagined a fyftem, which exifts
" only in their fancy ; but we confider nothing as true without fuch
" evidence as cannot be queftioned.'" I could not perfectly underftand
the old Gymnofophift, when he told me, that the Rds'ichacra or Circle
of Signs (for fo he called the Zodiack) was like a Dhujiura flower;
meaning the Datiiray to which the Sanfcrit name has been foftened, and
the flower of which is conical or fhaped like a funnel: at flrft I thought,
that he alluded to a projedlion of the hemifphere on the plane of the
colure, and to the angle formed by the ecliptick and equator; but a
younger aftronomer named Vina'yaca, who came afterwards to fee
me, afliired me that they meant only the circular mouth of the funnel,
or the bafe of the cone, and that it^ was ufual among their ancient
writers, to borrow from fruits and flowers their appellations of feveral
plane and folid figures.
From the two Brdhmans, whom I have juft named, I learned the fol-
lowing curious particulars ; and you may depend on my accuracy in re-
peating them, fince I wrote them in their prefence, and corredled what
I had written, till they pronounced it perfecft. They divide a great
circle, as we do, into three hundred and fixty degrees, called by them
anfas or portions; of which they, like us, allot thirty to each of the
twelve figns in this order :
Mijha,.
336 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF
Mejha, the Ram. Tula, the Balance.
Vrijloa, the Bull. 8. VrijJichica, the Scorpion.
Mit'huna, the Pair. Dhanus, the Bow.
^J. Carcat'i, the Crab. Macara, the Sea-Monfter.
Sinha, the Lion. Cumbha, the Ewer.
Cany a, the Virgin. 12. Af/W, the Fifli.
The figures of the twelve aflerifms, thus denominated with refped: to
thd fun, are fpecified, by Sri peti, author of the Retnamdla, in Sanfcrit
verfes ; which I produce, as my vouchers, in the original with a verbal
tranflation :
Mefhadayo nama famanarupi,
Vinagadad'nyam mit'hunam nriyugmam,
Pradipas'afye dadhati carabhyam
Navi fl'hita varin'i canyacaiva.
Tula tulabhrit pretimanapanir
Dhanur dhanufhman hayawat parangah,
Mrigananah fyan macaro't'ha cumbhah
Scandhe nero ridlaghatam dadhanah,
Anyanyapuchch'habhimuc'ho hi mi'nah
Matfyadwayam fwafl'halacharinomi.
*' The ram, bull, crab, lion, zxxAfcorpion, have the figures of thofe five
" animals refpecftively: the pair are a damfel playing on a Vina and a
" youth wielding a mace : the virgin ftands on a boat in water, holding
*• in one hand a lamp, in the other an ear of ricecorn : the balance is
" held by a weigher with a weight in one hand : the bow, by an archer,
" whofe hinder parts are like thofe of a horfe: t\\efea-mo}!fter has the
" face of an antelope : the ewer is a waterpot borne on the fhoiilder of
" a man, who empties it: the JiJJj are two with their heads turned to
each
37 •
as
nty
)Ut
a.
f
a.
ind
of
lis
re-
tes
ttie
ty-
:ial
ms
to-
»or
O
M
0
O
0
THE INDIAN ZODIACK,
337
" each others tails ; and all thefc are fuppofed to be in fuch places as
*• fuit their feveral natures."
To each of the twenty-feven lunar ftations, which they call nacjka-
tras, they allow thirteen a)2fas and one third, or thirteen degrees twenty
fnimites ; and their names appear in the order of the l%ns, but without
any regard to the figures of them :
9-
Aiwim,
Magha.
Mula.
Bharanl.
Piirva p'halguni.
VnTvdfidd'ha.
Critica.
Uttara fhalgiim.
Uttarafhad'ha.
Rohini.
Hafta.
Sravana.
Mrigafiras.
Chitra.
Dhanifhta.
A'rdra.
Swati.
Satabhiflia.
Punarvafu.
Vijac'ha.
Purva bhadrapadd.
PuJJ.ya.
Anuradha.
Uttarabhadrapada.
As'leflia.
18. Jyejht'ha.
2T. Revati.
Between the twenty-firfl and twenty-fecond conftellations, we find
in the plate three flars called Abhijit ; but they are the laft quarter of
the aflerifm immediately preceding, or the latter AJloar, as the word is
commonly pronounced. A complete revolution of the moon, with re-
fpedl to the flars, being made in twenty-feven days, odd hours, minutes
and feconds, and perfecfl exadlnefs being either not attained by t^e
Hindus or not required by them, they fixed on the number twenty-
feven, and inferted Abhijit for fome aftrological purpofe in their nuptial
ceremonies. The drawing, from which the plate was engraved, feems
intended to reprefent the figures of the twenty-feven conflellations, to-
gether with Abhijit, as they are defcribed in three flanzas by the author
of the Retnamcild :
VOL. I.
Z Z
1. Tura-
338 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF
1 . Turagamuc'hafadricfliam yonirupam cfliurabham,
Sacat'afamam at'hain'afyottamangena tulyam,
Man'igrihas'ara chacrabhani s'alopamam bham,
Sayanafadris'amanyachchatra paryancarupam.
2. Haflacarayutam cha maudlicafamam
chanyat pravalopamam,
Dhnfliyam torana fannibham balinibham,
fatcund'alabham param ;
Crudhyatcefarivicramena fadris'am,
s'ayyafamanam param,
Anyad dentivilafavat ft'hitamatah
s'ringat'acavya(fti bham.
3. Trivicramabham cha mridangarupam,
Vrittam tatonyadyamalabhwayabham,
Paryancarupam murajanucaram,
Ityevam as wadibhachacrarupam.
" A horfe's head; yoni or bhaga ; a razor; a wheeled carriage; the
** head of an antelope; a gem; a houfe; an arrow; a wheel; another
*' houfe; a bedflead; another bedftead; a hand; a pearl; a piece of
•* coral; a feftoon of leaves ; an oblation to the Gods; a rich ear-ring;
•' the tail of a fierce lion; a couch; the tooth of a wanton elephant,
" near which is the kernel of the s'ringataca nut ; the three footfteps
'• of Vishnu ; a tabor; a circular jewel; a two-faced image ; another
" couch ; and a fmaller fort of tabor : fuch are the figures of yljhohu
"** and the reft in the circle of lunar conftellations."
The Hindu draughtfman has very ill reprefented moft of the figures ;
and he has tranfpofed the two AJImras as well as the two Bkadrapads ;
but his figure of Abhijit, which looks like our ace of hearts, has a re-
femblance to the kernel of the trapa, a curious water-plant defcribed in
a feparate
THE INDIAN ZODIACK.
33g
a feparate eflay. In another Sanfcrit book the figures of the fame con-
ftellations are thus varied :
A horfe's head.
Yoni or bhaga.
A flame.
A waggon.
A cat's paw»
One bright ftar.
A bow.
A child's pencil,
g. A dog's tail.
A flraight tail. A conch.
Two ftars S. to N. A winnowing fan.
Two, N. to S. Another.
A hand.
A pearl.
Red fafFroH.
A feftoon.
A fnake.
18. A boar's head.
-/
An arrow.
A tabor.
A circle of flars.
A flaff for burdens.
The beam of a balance.
. Afifh.
From twelve of the afterifms juffc enumerated are derived the names
of the twelve Indian months in the ufual form of patronymicks j for
the Paurdnics, who reduce all nature to a fyflem of emblematical my-
thology, fuppofe a celeftial nymph to prefide over each of the conftella-
tions, and feign that the God So'ma, or Liiniis, having wedded twelve
of them, became the father of twelve Genii, or months, who are named
after their feveral mothers ;^ but the fyautifiicas affert, that, when their
lunar year was arranged by former aftronomers, the moon was at the
full in each month on the very day, when it entered the nacJJ:atra, from
which that month is denominated. The manner, in which the deriva-
tives are formed, will beft appear by a comparifon of the months with
their feveral conftellations :.
4.
A s'wina.
Cartica.
Margas'irfha.
Paufha.
Magha.
P'halguna.
8.
12
Chaitra.
Vaifac'ha.
Jyaifht'ha.
A'fliara.
Sravana.
Bhadra.
The
340 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF
The third month is alfo called A'grahayana (whence the common
word Agran is corrupted) from another name ol Mngaslras.
Nothing can be more ingenious than the memorial verfes, in which
the Hindus have a cuftom of linking together a number of ideas other-
wife unconnedted, and of chaining, as it were, the memory by a re-
gular meafure : thus by putting teeth for thirty-two, Rudra for eleven,
feafon for fix, arrow or element for five, ocean, Veda, or age, for four,
Ra'ma, Jire, or quality for three, eye, or Cuma'ra for two, and earth
or moon for one, they have compofed four lines, which exprefs the
number of flars in each of the twenty-feven afterifms.
Vahni tri ritwilhu gunendu critagnibhuta,
Banas'winetra s'ara bhucu yugabdhi ramah,
Rudrabdhiramagunavedas'ata dwiyugma,
Denta budhairabhihitah cramas'6 bhatarah.
That is: "three, three, fixj five, three, onej four, three, five;
** five, two, two J five, one, one j four, four, three ; eleven, four and
" three J three, four, a hundred; two, two, thirty-two: thus have the
" ftars of the lunar conftellations, in order as they appear, been num-
" bered by the wife."
If the ftanza was corredlly repeated to me, the two AJhdras are con-
fidered as one afterifm, and Abhijit as three feparate ftars ; but I fufpedt
an error in the third line, becaufe dwibana or two and five would fuit
the metre as well as bdhirama ; and becaufe there were only three Vedas
in the early age, when, it is probable, the ftars were enumerated and
the technical verfe compofed.
Two lunar ftations, or fnanfions, and a quarter are co-extenfive, we
fee, with one fign -, and nine ftations correfpond with four figns : by
counting.
THE INDIAN ZODIACK.
341
counting, therefore, thirteen degrees and twenty minutes from the firll
ftar in the head of the Ram, inclufively, we find the whole extent of
Afivinty and fliall be able to afcertain the other ftars with fufficient ac-
curacy ; but firft let us exhibit a comparative table of both ZodiackSf
denoting the manlions, as in the Vdranes almanack, by the firfl letters or
fyllables of their names :
Months.
A'fwin
Cartic
A'grahayan
Paufh
Solar Asterisms.
Mefh
Vrifh
Mit'hun
Carcat' A.
A
Ji.
4
M
z
P
Mansions.
+ bh + -^
4
M
+ ro +
z
+ p + s'l. g.
Magh
P'halgun
Chaitr
Vaifac'h
Sinh
Canya
Tula
Vrifchic 8.
m
3U
4
ch
+ PU +
+
u
4
ch
a
4
+ j 18.
Jaiflit"h
A'fliar
Sravan
Bhadr
Dhan
Macar
Cumbh
Min 12.
mu
4
dh
t" _
4
+ pu +
^ 4
dh
a
3/>a
+
+
s +
s +
u + r, 2;
Hence we may readily know the ftars in each manfion, as they fol-
low in order :
Lunar
342
ON THE ANTIQUITY OF
JNAR Mansions.
Solar Asterisms. Stars.
Afwini.
Ram.
Three, in and near the head.
Bharani.
Three, in the tail.
Critica.
Bull.
Six, of the Pleiads.
Rohini.
Fhe, in the head and neck.
f Three, in or near the feet,
\ perhaps in the Galaxy.
Mrigafiras.
Pair.
A'rdra.
Omy on the knee.
{Four, in the heads, breaft and
1 flioulder.
Punarvafu.
Pudiya.
Crab.
Three, in the body and claws..
As'lefha.
Lion.
Five, in the face and mane.
Magha.
Five, in the leg and haunch ►
Purvap'halguni.
Tnjoo ; one in the taii.
Uttarap'halguni.
Virgin.
Two, on the arm and zone.
Hafta.
Five, near the hand..
Chitra.
One, in the fpike.
Swati.
Balance.
One, in the N. Scale.
Visac'ha.
Four, beyond it.
Anuradha.
Scorpion.
Four, in the body.
Jyefht'ha.
Three, in the tail.
Mula.
Bow.
^Eleven, to the point of the
C arrow.
Purvafhara.
Two, in the leg.
Uttarafhara.
Sea-monfter.
Two, in the horn.
Sravana.
Three, in the tail..
Dhaniflit'a.
Ewer.
Foicr, in the arm. '
Satabhifha.
Many, in the fiream.
Piirvabhadrapada.
Filh.
Two, in the firfl fifli..
Uttarabhadrapada .
Two, in the cord.
\ Thirty-two, in the fecond
Rcvatl.
i fifii and cord.
Wherevei-
THE INDIAN ZODIACK. 343
Wherever the Indian drawing differs from the memorial verfe in the
Reinama/a, I have preferred the authority of the vv^riter to that of the
painter, who has drawn fome terreflrial things with fo Uttle fimihtude,
that we mufh not implicitly rely on his reprefentation of objedls merely
celeflial: he feems particularly to have erred in the flars o( D/janiJJji'a.
For the afliftance of thofe, who may be inclined to re-examine the
twenty-feven conftellations with a chart before them, I fubjoin a table
of the degrees, to which the nacp?atras extend refpe<5Lively from the
iirft ftar in the aflerifm of Aries, which we now fee near the beginning
of the lign 'Taurus, as it was placed in the ancient fphere.
N.
D.
M.
N.
D.
M.
N.
D.
M.
I.
13^-
20'.
X.
^23'-
20'.
XIX.
253^.
20'.
II.
26^.
40'.
XL
146°.
40'.
XX.
266'^.
40'.
III.
40^
0'.
XII.
160°.
0 .
XXI.
280°.
0'.
IV.
5f'
20'.
XIII.
^73'-
20'.
XXII.
293"-
20'.
V.
66^.
40'.
XIV.
186^.
40'.
XXIII.
306^
40'.
VI.
So'^.
r
0 .
XV.
200°.
0 .
XXIV.
320^^.
/
0.
VII.
93^-
20'.
XVI.
213^
20'.
XXV.
333°-
20'.
VIII.
106°.
40'.
XVII.
226".
40'.
XXVI.
346^.
40'.
IX.
120°.
f
0 .
XVIIL
240°.
0.
XXVII,
• 360^
f
0.
The afterifms of ihc Jirji column are in the iigns o^ Taurus, Gemini,
Cancer, Leo ; thofe of the fecond, in Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius %
and thofe of the third, in Capricornus, Aquarius, Pifces, Aries : we can-
not err much, therefore, in any feries of three conftellations ; for, by
counting 13"^ zo forwards and backwards, we find the fpaces occupied
by the two extremes, and the intermediate fpace belongs of courfe to
the middlemoft. It is not mcaned, that the divifion of the Hindu Zo-
diack into fuch fpaces is exa^fl to a minute, or that every flar of each
afterifm
344 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF
aflerifm muft neceflarily be found in the fpace to which it belongs ; but
the computation will be accurate enough for our purpofe, and no lunar
manfion can be very remote from the path of the moon : how Father
SouciET could dream, that Vlfdcha was in the Northern Crown, I
can hardly comprehend ; but it furpaffes all comprehenfion, that M.
Bailly fhould copy his dream, and give reafons to fupport it;
efpecially as four ftars, arranged pretty much like thofe in the Indian
figure, prefent thcmfelves obvioufly near the balance or the fcorpion.
I have not the boldnefs to exhibit the individual liars in each manfion,
diflinguifhed in Bayer's method by Greek letters ; becaufe, though I
have little doubt, that the five fi:ars oi A^lejha, in the form of a wheel,
are ri, y, (^ ^, ;, of the Lion, and thofe of Mula, y, s, S, ^ (p, t, a-, v, c, ^, tt,
of the Sagittary, and though I think many of the others equally clear,
yet, where the number of ftars in a manfion is lefs than three, or even
than four, it is not eafy to fix on them with confidence ; and I muft
wait, until fome young Hindu aftronomer, with a good memory and
good eyes, can attend my leifure on ferene nights at the proper feafons,
to point out in the firmament itfelf the feveral flars of all the conftella-
tions, for which he can find names in the Sanfcrit language : the only
fi:ars, except thofe in the Zodiack, that have yet been difi:ind:ly named
to me, are the SeptarJ]:i, Dhniva, Arundhati^ ViJImiipad, Mdtrimandel,
and, in the fouthern hemifphere, Agcijlya, or Canopiis. The twenty-
feven Toga ftars, indeed, have particular names, in the order of the
7iacJ}:atraSy to which they belong ; and fince we learn, that the Hindus
have determined the latitude, longitude, and right afcenfion of each, it
might be ufeful to exhibit the lilt of them : but at prefent I can
onlv fubjoin the names of twenty-feven Togas, or divifions of the
Ecliptick.
ViJlKambha. Ganda. Parigha.
Priti. Vriddhi. Siva.
A'yiijlomat.
^-^
^
^
.0
^5 N
1
I
be
^•
I
i
■-. ^
rq
■ ^
^
^
^
s ^
C> ^
THE
INDIAN ZODI/
VCK.
345
A'yufimat.
Dhruva.
S'tddha.
Saiibhagya.
Vydghdta.
Sddhya.
Sobhana.
Herjhana.
' Subha.
Atiganda.
Vajra.
Slier a.
S near man.
Afrij. ^
Brahman,
Dbriti.
Vyatipdta.
Indra.
Sulci.
Variyas.
Vaidhriti.
Having fhown in what manner the Hindus arrange the Zodiacal flars
with refped: to the fun and moon, let us proceed to our principal fub-
je(5l, the antiquity of that double arrangement. In the firft place, the
Brdhmans were always too proud to borrow their fcience from the
Greeks, Arabs, Moguls, or any nation of MUchclShas, as they call thofe,
who are ignorant of the Vedas, and have not fludied the language of the
Gods : they have often repeated to me the fragment of an old verfe,
which they now ufe proverbially, na nicho yavandtparah, or no bafe
creature can be lower than a Yavan ; by which name they formerly
meant an loiiian or Greek, and now mean a Mogul, or, generally, a
Mujelman. When I mentioned to different Pandits, at feveral times and
in feveral places, the opinion of Montucla, they could not prevail
on themfelves to oppofe it by ferious argument ; but fome laughed
heartily ; others, with a farcaftick fmile, faid it was a pleafant imagina-
tion ; and all feemed to think it a notion bordering on phrenfy. In
fadt, although the figures of the twelve Indian figns bear a wonderful
refemblance to thofe of the Grecian, yet they are too much varied for a
mere copy, and the nature of the variation proves them to be original -,
nor is the refemblance more extraordinary than that, which has often
been obferved, between our Gothick days of the week and thofe of the
Hindus, which are dedicated to the fame luminaries, and (what is yet
more fingular) revolve in the fame order : Ravi, the Sun ; Soma, the
Moon ; Mangala, Tuifco ; Budha, Woden ; Vrihafpati, Thor -, Sucra,
VOL. I. 3 A Freya ;
346 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF
Freya ; Sani, Sater ; yet no man ever imagined, that the Indians bor-
rowed fo remarkable an arrangement from the Goths or Germans. On
the planets I will only obferve, that Sucra, the regent of Venus, is,
like all the reft, a male deity, named alfo Us an as, and believed to be a
fage of infinite learning ; but Zohrah, the Na'hi'd of the Perjians, is
a goddefs like the Freya of our Saxon progenitors: the drawing,
therefore, of the planets, which was brought into Bengal hy Mr. John-
son, relates to the Perjian fyftem, and reprefents the genii fuppofed to
prefide over them, exadlly as they are defcribed by the poet Ha'tifi':
" He bedecked the firmament with ftars, and ennobled this earth with
*' the race of men j he gently turned the aufpicious new moon of the
" feftival, like a bright jewel, round the ankle of the fky j he placed
" the Hindu Saturn on the feat of that reflive elephant, the revolving
" fphere, and put the rainbow into his hand, as a hook to coerce the
** intoxicated beaft ; he made filken firings of fun-beams for the lute
" of Venus; and prefented Jupiter, who faw the felicity of true
'* religion, with a rofary of cluflering Pleiads. The bow of the fky
" became that of Mars, w^hen he was honoured with the command of
•' the celeftial hoft ; for God conferred fovereignty on the Sun, and
" fquadrons of flars were his army."
The names and forms of the lunar conflellations, efpecially of Bha-
rani and Abhijit, indicate a fimplicity of manners peculiar to an ancient
people ; and they differ entirely from thofe of the Arabian fyfrem, in
which the very firft afterifm appears in the dual number, becaufe it
confifls only of two ftars. Menzil, or the place of alighting, properly
fignifies 'x Jiation ox Jlage, and thence is ufed for an ordinary day's
journey ; and that idea feems better applied than wanfion to fo inccflant
a traveller as the moon : the 7fiendzilu'l kamar, or lunar fiages, of the
Arabs have twenty-eight names in the following order, the particle al
being underflood before every word :
S ha rata n.
THE INDIAN ZODIACK.
347
Sharatan.
Nathrah.
Ghafr.
Dhabih'.
But'ain.
Tarf.
Zubaniyah.
Bulaa.
Thuravya.
Jabhah.
IcFil.
Suud.
Debaran.
Zubrah.
Kalb.
Akhbiya.
Hakaah.
Sarfah.
Shaulah.
Mukdim.
Hanaah.
Awwa.
Naaim.
Mukhir.
7. Dhiraa.
14. Simac.
21. Beldah. 28.
Rifha.
Now, if we can truft the Arabian lexicographers, the number of flars
in their feveral menzils rarely agrees with thofe of the Indians ; and
two fuch nations muft naturally have obferved, and might naturally
have named, the principal liars, near which the moon palTes in the
courfe of each day, without any communication on the fubjeft : there
is no evidence, indeed, of a communication between the Hindus and
Arabs on any fubjedt of literature or fcience j for, though we have
reafon to believe, that a commercial intercourfe lublifted in very early
times between Yemen and the weftern coaft of India, yet the Brdhmans,
who alone are permitted to read the fix Veddngas, one of which is the
aftronomical Sdjira, were not then commercial, and, moil probably,
neither could nor would have converfed with Arabian merchants. The
hoftile irruption of the Arabs into Hindujidn, in the eighth century, and
that of the Moguls under Chengi'z, in the thirteenth, were not likely
to change the aftronomical fyftem of the Hindus ; but the fuppofed
confequences of modern revolutions are out of the queftion j for, if any
hiftorical records be true, we know with as pofitive certainty, that
Amarsinh and Ca'lida's compofed their works before the birth of
Christ, as that Menander and Terence wrote before that im-
portant epoch : now the twelve Jigns and twenty-feven manfions are
mentioned, by the feveral nanies before exhibited, in a Sanfcrit voca-
bulary by the firft of thofe Indian authors, and the fecond of them fre-
quently alludes to Rdhini and the reft by name in his Fatal Ring, his
Children of the Sun, and his Birth of Cuma'ra; from which poem I
produce
348
produce two lines, that my evidence may not feem to be colleded from
mere converfation :
Maitre muhurte s'as'alanch'hanena,
Yogam gatafuttarap'halganiiliu.
" When the flars of Uttarap'halgim had joined in a fortunate hour
<' the fawn-fpotted moon."
This tellimony being decifive againfl: the conjedlure of M. Mon-
TUCLA, I need not urge the great antiquity of Menu's Inftitutes, in
which the twenty-feven afterifms are called the daughters of Dacsha
and the conforts of So'ma, or the Moon, nor rely on the teftimony of
the Erdhmans, who afllire me with one voice, that the names of the
Zodiacal flars occur in the Vedas ; three of which I firmly believe, from
internal and external evidence, to be more than three thoufand years old.
Having therefore proved what I engaged to prove, I will clofe my eflay
with a general obfervation. The refult of Newton's refearches into
the hiftory of the primitive fphere was, " that the pradiice of obferving
** the ftars began in 'Egypt in the days of Ammon, and was propagated
" thence by conqueft in the reign of his fon Sisac, into Africk, TLiirope,
" ■i.wA.Afia ; fince which time Atlas formed the fphere of the Lybians ;
** Chiron, that of the Greeks; and the Chaldeans, a fphere of their
" own :" now I hope, on fome other occafions, to fatisfy the publick,
as I have perfe(flly fatisfied myfelf, that " the pra(5lice of obferving the
" flars began, with the rudiments of civil fociety, in the country of
" thofe, whom we call Chaldeans ; from which it was propagated into
" Egypt, India, Greece, Italy, and Scandinavia, before the reign of
*< S.isAC or Sa'cya, who by conqueft fpread a new fyftem of reli-
" gion and philofophy from the Nile to the Ganges about a thoufand
" years before Christ j but that Chiron and Atlas were allego-
** rical or mythological perfonages, and ought to have no place in the
*' ferious hiflory of our fpecies."
ON
THE LITERATURE OF THE HINDUS,
FROM THE SANSCRIT.
Communicated by Goverdhan Caul, tranjlated, whhaJJoort Commentary,
BV
The president.
THE TEXT.
X. HERE are eighteen Vidyas, or parts of true Knowledge, and fome
branches of Knowledge falfely fo called; of both which a fhort account
fliall here be exhibited.
The lirft four are the immortal Veda s evidently revealed by God ;
which are entitled, in one compound word, Rigyajuhfdmat' harva, or, in
feparate words. Rich, Yajufi, Sdman, and Afharvan : the Rigve'da con-
fifts oifiue fedions; the Yajurvcda, of eighty ~Jtx -, the Sdmaveda, of a
thou/and; and the At'harvaveda, of nine ; with eleven hundred s'dchas,
or Branches, in various divifions and fubdivifions. The Veda's in truth
are infinite; but were reduced by Vya'sa to this number and order;
the principal part of them is that, which explains the Duties of Man in
a methodical arrangement; and in ^^ fourth is a fyftem of divine ordi-
nances.
From thefe are deduced the four Upavedas, namely, Ayuf:, Gdnd-
harva, D-hanuJh, and St'hdpatya ; the firll of which, or Ayurveda, was
delivered
350 ON THE LITERATURE
delivered to mankind by Brahma', Indra, Dhanwantari, and^^r
other Deities i and comprizes the theory of Diforders and Medicines,
with the pradlical methods of curing Difeafes. The fecond, or Mufick,
was invented and explained by Bharata: it is chiefly ufeful in raifing
the mind by devotion to the felicity of the Divine nature. The third
Upaveda was compofed by Viswamitra on the fabrication and ufe
of arms and implements handled in war by the tribe of Cfiatriya's.
Vis'wacarman revealed the fourth in various treatifes on Jixty-four
Mechanical Arts, for the improvement of fuch as exercife them.
Six Angdsy or Bodies of Learning, are alfo derived from the fame
fource : their names are, SkJJjay Calpa, Fydcarana, CJjhandas, yyotifiy
and NiriiSii. The Jirji was written by Pa'nini, an infpired Saint, on
the pronunciation of vocal founds j the, fecond contains a detail of religious
adls and ceremonies from the firft to the laft ; and from the branches of
thefe works a variety of rules have been framed by A's'wala'yana,
and others : the third, or the Grammar, entitled Pdn'iniya, conlifting of
eight ledlures or chapters (Vriddhiradaij, and fo forth), was the produc-
tion of three Rijhi's, or holy men, and teaches the proper difcriminations
of words in conflruftion ; but other lefs abftrufe Grammars, compiled
merely for popular ufe, are not confidered as Anga's: the fourth, or
Profody, was taught by a Muni, named Pingala, and treats of charms
and incantations in verfes aptly framed and varioufly meafured ; fuch
as the Gdyatri, and a thoufand others. Afironomy is the fifth of the
Veddngds, as it was delivered by Su'rya, and other divine perfons : it
is neceflary in calculations of time. The fixth, or NiruSli, was com-
pofed by Ya'sca (fo is the manufcript ; but, perhaps, it fhould be
Vya'sa) on the fignification of difficult words and phrafes in the Veda's.
Laftly, there are four Updnga's, called Pur/ma, Nydya, Mitminsdy
ind Dherma s'a/ira. Eighteen Purdna's, that of Brahma, and the
refl.
OF THE HINDUS. 351
rcll:, were compofed by Vya'sa for the inftruftion and entertainment
of mankind in general. Nyaya is derived from the root «/, to acquire or
apprehend; and, in this fenfe, the books on apprehenfion, reafoning, and
judgement^ are called Nydya : the principal of thefe are the work ot
Gautama m fve chapters, and that of Cana'da in ten; both teach-
ing the meaning of facred texts, the difference between juft and un-
juft, right and wrong, and the principles of knowledge, all arranged
under twenty-three heads. Mlmdnsa is alio two-fold ; both fhowing what
adls are pure or impure, what objeds are to be defired or avoided, and
by what means the foul may afcend to the Firfl Principle : xht former,
or Carma Mimdnsa, comprized in twelve chapters, was written by
Jaimini, and difculTes queftions of moral Duties and Law ; next follows
the Updfand Cdnda in four lectures f Snncarpana and the reft), con-
taining a furvey of Religious Duties ; to which part belong the rules of
Sa'ndilya, and others, on devotion and duty to God. Such are the
contents of the Purva, or former, Mimdnsa. The Uttara, or latter^
abounding in queftions on the Divine Nature and other fublime fpecu-
lations, was compofed by Vya'sa, in four chapters znd fixteen le6lions :
it may be confidered as the brain and fpring of all the Afiga's; it expofes
the heretical opinions of Ra'ma'nuja, Ma'dhwa, Vallabha, and
other Sophifts ; and, in a manner fuited to the comprehenfion of adepts,
it treats on the true nature of Gane'sa, Bha'scara, or the Sun,
Ni'lacanta, Lacshmi', and other y^^rw^ of One Divine Being. A
fmiilar work was written bv S'rt' S'ancara, denionftrating the Su-
preme Power, Goodnefs, and Eternity of God.
The Body of Law, called Smr7ti, conlifts of eighteen bocks, each
divided under three general heads, the duties of religion, the adminiftra-
tion of Jujlice, and the punifliment or expiation of crimes: they were
delivered, for the inftruftion of the human fpecies, by Menu, and other
facred perfonages.
As
352 ON THE LITERATURE
As to Ethicks, the Fedas contain all that relates to the duties of
Kings j the Pur anas, what belongs to the relation of hufband and wife,
and the duties of friendfliip and fociety (which complete the triple
divifion) are taught fuccinftly in both : this double divifion of Anga's
and JJpdngas may be confidered as denoting the double benefit arifing
from them in theory and practice .
The Bharata and Rdmdyana, v^'hich are both Epick Poems, comprize
the mofl valuable part of ancient Hiftory.
For the information of the lower clalTes in religious knowledge, the
Pdfupata, the Panchardtra, and other works, fit for nightly meditation,
were compofed by Siva, and others, in an hundred and ninety-two parts
on difi*erent fubjefts.
What follow are not really divine, but contain infinite contradidlions.
Sdnchya is twofold, that with Is'wara and that without Is war a : the
former is intitled Pdtanjala in one chapter of four fedlions, and is ufeful
in removing doubts by pious contemplation ; the fecond, or Cdpila, is in
fix chapters on the production of all things by the union of Pracriti,
or Nature, and Purusha, or the Firjl Male : it comprizes alfo, in eight
parts, rules for devotion, thoughts on the invifible power, and other
topicks. Both thefe works contain a ftudied and accurate enumeration
of natural bodies and their principles; whence this philofophy is named
Sdnchya. Others hold, that it was fo called from its reckoning three
forts oi fain.
The Mimdnsd, therefore, is in two parts ; the Nydya, in tico ; and the
Sdnchya, in two ; and thefe fix Schools comprehend all the dodrine of
the Theifts.
Laft
OF THE HINDUS. 353
Laft of all appears a work written by Buddha ; and there are alfo
fix AtheilHcal fyftems of Philofophy, entitled Yogachdra, Saudhdnta,
Vaibhdjhica, Mddhy arnica, Digambara, and Chdrvdc; all full of indeter-
minate phrafes, errors in fenfe, confufion between diftindt qualities,
incomprehenfible notions, opinions not duly weighed, tenets deflrudlive
of natural equality, containing a jumble of Atheifm and Ethicks j diflri-
buted, like our Orthodox books, into a number of fedtions, which omit
what ought to be expreilcd, and exprefs what ought to be omitted;
abounding in falfe proportions, idle proportions, impertinent propo-
iitions : fome aflert, that the heterodox Schools have no Updnga's ;
others, that they have fix Anga's, and as many Sdnga's, or Bodies and
other Appendices.
Such is the analyfis of univerfal knowledge, Fra5iical and Speculative.
THE COMMENTARY.
This firfl chapter of a rare Sanfcrit Book, entitled Vidydderfa, or a
View of Learning, is written in fo clofe and concife a ftyle, that fome
parts of it are very obfcure, and the whole requires an explanation.
From the beginning of it we learn, that the Veda's are confidered by the
Hindus as the fountain of all knowledge human and divine ; whence the
verfes of them are faid in the Gitd to be the leaves of that holy tree, to
which the Almighty Himfelf is compared :
nrdhwa miilam adhah sdcham as watt' ham prdhuravyayam
c/fhanddnf yafya perndni yajlam vedafa vedavit.
" The wife have called the Incorruptible One an As'watt'ha with its
" roots above and its branches below; the leaves of which are the
" facred meafures : he, who knows this tree, knows the Veda's."
VOL. I.
3 B All
354 ON THE LITERATURE
All the Pandits infill:, that As'nvatt'ha means the Pippala, or Religious
Fig-tree with heart-fhaped pointed and tremulous leaves j but the com-
parifon of heavenly knowledge, defcending and taking root on earth, to
the Fat'a, or great Indian Fig-tree, which has moil confpicuoufly its
roots on high, or at lead has radicating branches, would have been far
more exadl and fir iking.
The Veda's confifls of three Cdn'd'a's or General Heads; namely.
Car ma, Jnydna, Updfand, or Works, Faith, and WorJJnp; to tlie firfl of
which the Author of the Vidydderfa wifely gives the preference, as Menu
himfelf prefers imiverfal benevolence to the ceremonies of religion :
"Japyenaiva tu fanfiddhyedbrdhmano ndtrafanfayah :
Curyddanyatravd ciirydnmaitro brdhtiiana uchyate.
that is : "By filent adoration undoubtedly a Brahman attains holinefs ;
" but every benevolent man, whether he perform or omit that ceremony,
" is juflly ilyled a Brahman.'' This triple divifion of the Veda's may
feem at firfl to throw light on a very obfcure line in the Gita :
Traigunyavijl:iayah ve'dd ni/lraigunya bhavdrjuna
or, " The Veda's are attended with three qualities: be not thou a man
" ol three qualities, O Arjuna."
But feveral Pandits are of opinion, that the phrafe mufl relate to the
three guna's, or qualities of the mind, that of excellence, that of pajjion,
and that of darknefs ; from the lafl of which a Hero fhould be wholly
exempt, though examples of it occur in the Veda's, where animals arc
ordered to ht facrijicedy and where horrid incantations are inferted for
the deJlruSlion of enemies.
It
OF THE HINDUS. 355
It is extremely lingular, as Mr. Wilkins has already obferved, that,
notwithftanding the fable of Brahma"s four mouths, each of which
uttered a Veda, yet moft ancient writers mention only three Vedas, in
order as they occur in the compound word Rigyajuhfdma ; whence it
is inferred, that the Afharvan was written or collefted after the three
firftj and the two following arguments, which are entirely new, will
ftrongly confirm this inference. In the eleventh book of Menu, a work
afcribed to the^r/? age of mankind, and certainly of high antiquity, the
At'harvan is mentioned by name, and ftyled the Veda of Veda's; a
phrafe, which countenances the notion of Da'ra' Shecu'h, who afTerts,
in the preface to his Upanipat, that ** the three firft Vedas are named
" feparately, becaufe the At'harvan is a corollary from them all, and
" contains the quintefTence of them." But this verfe of Menu, which
occurs in a modern copy of the work brought from Bdfidras, and
which would fupport the antiquity and excellence of the fourth Veda,
is entirely omitted in the heft copies, and particularly in a very fine one
written at Gay a, where it was accurately collated by a learned Brahman; fo
that, as Menu himfelf in other places names only three Veda's, we muft
believe this line to be an interpolation by fome admirer of the At'har-
van ; and fuch an artifice overthrows the very doilrine, which it was
intended to fuflain.
The next argument is yet flronger, fince it arifes from internal evi-
dence; and of this we are now enabled to judge by the noble zeal of
Colonel Polier in colle(fting Indian curiofities ; which has been fo
judicioufly applied and fo happily exerted, that he now poflefl'es a com-
plete copy of the four Vedas in eleven large volumes.
On a curfory infpe<S;ion of thofe books it appears, that even a learner
of Sanfcrit may read a confiderable part of the At' harvaveda without a
dictionary; but that the ftyle of the other three is fo obfolete, as to feem
almoft
350 ON THE LITERATURE
almofl a different dialedl: when we are informed, therefore, that few
Brdhmans at Bcindras can underftand any part of the Veda's, we mufl
prefume, that none are meant, but the Rich, Yajiijh, and Saman, with
an exception of the At\harvan, the language of which is comparatively
modern ; as the learned will perceive from the following fpecimen :
Tatra brahmavido ydnti dicJJ.myd tapasdfaha agnirmantatra nayatwagnir-
medbdn dedhdtiime, agnaye fiodhd. vdyurftidn tatra nay at u vdyuh prdndn
dedhdtii me, vdyuwe fwdha.Juryo ffidn tatra nayatu chacjlouh furyo dedhdtu
me, suryhyafwdha ; chandro man tatra nayatu manafchandrb dedhdtii me,
chandrdya Jwdhd. fomo mdn tatra nayatu pay ah fomo dedhdtu me, fomdya
fwdhd. Indro mdn tatra nayatu balamindro dedhdtu me, indrdya fwdhd.
dpo mdn tatra nayat'wdmritamm6patljl:)tatu, adbhyah fwdhd. yatra brah-
77iavido ydnti dicfiayd tapasdfaha, brahmd mdn tatra nayatu brahma brah-'
fnd dedhdtu me, brahma?ie fwdhd.
that is, " Where they, who know the Great One, go, through holy
" rites and through piety, thither may fre raife me ! May fire receive
my facrifices ! Myfterious praife to fire ! May air waft me thither !
May air increafe my fpirits ! Myfterious praife to air ! May the Sun
draw me thither ! May the fun enlighten my eye! Myfterious praife
to the fun ! May the Moon bear me thither ! May the moon receive
my mind ! Myfterious praife to the moon ! May the plant Soma lead
me thither ! May Soma beftow on me its hallowed milk ! Myfterious
praife to Soma! May Indra, or iho. Jirmament, carry me thither!
May Indra give me, ftrength ! Myfterious praife to Indra! May
water bear me thither ! May water bring me the ftream of immorta-
lity ! Myfterious praife to the waters I Where they, who know the
Great One, go, through holy rites and through piety, thither may
Brahma' conduct me ! May Brahma' lead me to the Great One !
Myfterious praife to Brahma'!"
Several
<(
OF THE HINDUS. 35 7
Several other pafTages might have been cited from the firft book of
the Afharvari, particularly a tremendous incantation with confecrated
grafs, called Darbbha, and a fublime Hymn to Cdlay or time ; but a
fingle paflage will fuffice to fhow the ftyle and language of this extraor-
dinary work. It would not be fo eafy to produce a genuine extract from
the other Vt'da's: indeed, in a book, entitled Sivavedanta, written in
Sanfcrit, but in CdJJomirian letters, a ftanza from the Tajurveda is intro-
duced; which deferves for its fublimity to be quoted here ; though the
regular cadence of the verfes, and the polifhed elegance of the language,
cannot but induce a fufpicion, that it is a more modern paraphrafe of
fome text in the ancient Scripture :
natatra Juryo bhati nucha chandra tdracau, nhnd vidyuto bhdnti cuta iva
•vahnih: tameva bhdntam anubhdtifervam, tafya bhdfd fervamidam "vibhati.
that is, " There the fun fhines not, nor the moon and ftars : thefe light-
*' nings flafh not in that place; how fhould even fire blaze there'? God
" irradiates all this bright fubftance ; and by its effulgence the univerfe
** is enlightened."
After all, the books on divine Knowledge, called Veda, or what is
known, and Sriiti, or what has been heard, from revelation, are flill fup-
pofed to be very numerous j and the four here mentioned are thought
to have been feledled, as containing all the information necelTary for
man. Mohsami Fa'ni', the very candid and ingenious author of the
Dabijlan, defcribes in his firft chapter a race of old Perjtan fages, who
appear from the whole of his account to have been Hindus ; and we
cannot doubt, that the book of Maha'ba'd, or Menu, which was
written, he fays, in a celefiial dialeSi, means the Veda ; fo that, as
Zera'tusht was only a reformer, we find in India the true fource
of the ancient Perfian religion. To this head belong the numerous
tantra^
358 ON THE LITERATURE
Tantra, Mantra, Agama, and Nigama, Sajlra's, which confift of incan-
tations and other texts of the Fcdas, with remarks on the occafions, on
which they may be fuccefsfully applied. It muft not be omitted, that
the Commentaries on the Hindu Scriptures, among which that of Va-
siSHTHA feems to be reputed the moft excellent, are innumerable;
but, while we have accefs to the fountains, we need not wafte our time
in tracing the rivulets.
From the P^edas are immediately deduced the pradtical arts of Chiriir-
qery and Medicine, Mufick and Dancing, Archery, which comprizes the
whole art of war, and ArchiteBure, under which the fyftem of Me-
chanical arts is included. According to the Pandits, who inflrudled
Abu'lfazl, each of the four Scriptures gave rife to one of the
Upavedas, or Sub-fcriptures, in the order in which they have been
mentioned ; but this exadinefs of analogy feems to favour of refine-
ment.
Infinite advantage may be derived by Europeans from the various
Medical books in Sanfcrit, which contain the names and defcriptions of
Indian plants and minerals, with their ufes, difcovered by experience, in
curing diforders : there is a vafl: collecftion of them from the Cheraca,
which is confidered as a work of SivA, to the Roganirupana and the
Niddna, which are comparatively modern. A number of books, in
profe and verfe, have been written on Mufick, with fpecimens of Hindu.
airs in a very elegant notation ; but the Silpa s'djira, or Body of Treatifes
on Mechanical arts, is believed to be loft.
Next in order to thefe are the fix Veddngds, three of which belong
to Grammar; one relates to religious ceremonies ; a fifth to the whole
compafs of Mathematicks, in which the author of Lilawati was efteem-
ed the moft fkilful man of his time; and ihcfxth, to the explanation
of
OF THE HINDUS. 35q
of obfcure words or phrafes in the Vedas. The grammatical work, of
Pa'nini, a writer fuppofed to have been infpired, is entitled SiJdhdnta
Caumudi, and is fo abflrufe, as to require the lucubrations of many
years, before it can be perfedlly underftood. When Cds'indt'ha Sermariy
who attended Mr. Wilkins, was allied what he thought of the
Pari inly a, he anfwered very expreffively, that " it was a foreft;" but,
fince Grammar is only an inflrument, not the end, of true knowledo-e,
there can be little occafion to travel over fo rough and gloomy a pathj
which contains, however, probably fome acute fpeculations in Meta-
phyficks. The Sanfcrit Profody is eafy and beautiful: the learned will
find in it almoft all the meafures of the Greeks; and it is remarkable,
that the language of the Brdhmans runs very naturally into Sapphicks,
Alcaicks^ and lambicks, Aftronomical works in this language are ex-
ceedingly numerous : feventy-nine of them are fpecified in one lift;
and, if they contain the names of the principal ftars vifible in Indian
with obfervations on their pofitions in different ages, what difcoveries
may be made in Science, and what certainty attained in ancient Chro-
nology ?
Subordinate to thefe Angas (though the reafon of the arrangement is
not obvious) are the feries of Sacred Poems, the Body oi Law, and the
j/fof Philofophical s'ajira's; which the author of our text reduces to two,
each conlilling of two parts, and rejeifls a third, in two parts alfo, as
not perfedlly orthodox, that is, not ftridlly conformable to his own
principles.
The firft Indiaii Poet was Va'lmi'ci, author of the Rdmdyana, a
complete Epick Poem on one continued, interefting, and heroick,
adlion ; and the next in celebrity, if it be not fuperior in reputation
for holinefs, was the Mahdbhdrata of Vya'sa : to him are afcribed the
facred Purdnds, which are called, for their excellence, the Eighteen,,
and.
360 ON THE LITERATURE
and which have the following titles : Brahme, or the Great One,
Pedma, or the Lotos, Bra'hma'nd'a, or the Mundane Egg, and
Agni, or Fire (thefe four relate to the Creation), Vishnu, or the Per-
vaiier, Garud A, or his Eagle, the Transformations of Brahma', Siva,
LiNGA, Na'reda, fon of Brahma', Scanda fon of Siva, Mar-
cande'ya, or the Immortal Man, and Bhawishya, or the Prediction
oi Futurity (thefe «/«? belong to the attributes ^.nA powers oi th.Q. Deity),
and y^wr others, Matsya, Vara'ha, Cu'rma, Va'mena, or as many-
incarnations of the Great One in his characfler oi Prefcrver; all contain-
ing ancient traditions embelliflied by poetry or difguifed by fable : the
eighteenth is the Bha'gawata, or Life of Crishna, with which the
fame Poet is by fome imagined to have crowned the whole feries ;
though others, with more reafon, aflign them different compofers.
The fyftem of Hindu Law, befides the fine work, called Menu-
SMRiTi, or " what is remembered from Menu," that of Ya jnya-
WALCYA, and thofe oifixteen other Mwii's, with Commentaries on them
all, confifls of many tracfts in high eftimation, among which thofe cur-
rent in Bengal are, an excellent treatife on Inheritances by Ji'mu'ta
Va'hana, and a complete Digeji, in twenty-feven volumes, compiled a
few centuries ago by Raghunandan, the Tribonian oi India, whole
work is the grand repofitory of all that can be known on a fubjed: fo
curious in itfelf, and fo interefting to the Britijh Government.
Of the Philofophical Schools it will be fufficient here to remark, that
the firft Nydya feems analogous to the Peripatetick, the fecond, fome-
times called Vaisejlnca, to the lonick, the two Mimdnsas, of which the
fecond is often diftinguiflied by the name of Veddnta, to the Platonick,
the firft Sdnchya to the Italick, and the fecond, or Pdtanjala, to the
Stoick, Philofophy; fo that Gautama correfponds with Aristotle;
Cana'da, with Thales; Jaimini with Socrates j Vya'sa with
Plato j
OF THE HINDUS. 30 1
Plato; Capila with Pythagoras; and Patanjali with Zeno:
but an accurate comparifon between the Grecian and Indian Schools
would require a conllderable volume. The original works of thofe
Philolophers are very fuccind; ; but, like all the other Sdjiras, they are
explained, or obfcured, by the Upaderfana or Commentaries without end :
one of the fineft compofitions on the Philofophy of the Veddnta is
entitled Toga Vdsijhfha, and contains the inftruftions of the great
Vasishtha to his pupil, Ra'ma, king oi Ayodhya,
It refults from this analyfis of Hindu Literature, that the Vida^
Upaveda, Fc'ddnga, Piirdna, Dherma, and Ders'ana are the Six great
Sdjiras, in which all knowledge, divine and human, is fuppofed to be
comprehended ; and here we mufl: not forget, that the word Sdjira, de-
rived from a root fignifying to ordain, means generally an Ordinance, and
particularly a Sacred Ordinance delivered by infpiration : properly, there-
fore, this word is applied only to facred literature, of which the text
exhibits an accurate fketch.
The Sudras, or fourth clafs of Hindus, are not permitted to ftudy the
Jix proper Sdjlra's before-enumerated ; but an ample field remains for
them in the fludy of profane literature, comprized in a multitude of
popular books, which correfpond with the feveral Sdjiras, and abound
with beauties of every kind. All the tra6ts on Medicine muft, indeed
be ftudied by the Vaidyas, or thofe, who are born Phyficians ; and they
have often more learning, with far lefs pride, than any of the Brdhmans:
they are ulually Poets, Grammarians, Rhetoricians, Moralifts; and may
be elleemed in general the moft virtuous and amiable of the Hindus.
Inftead of the Vedas they ftudy the Rdjaniti, or InJlruBion of Princes,
and inllead oi Law, the Nitifijh-a, or general fyftem of Ethicks: their
Sahitia, or Cdvya Sdjira, confifts of innumerable poems, written
chiefly by the Medical tribe, and fupplying the place of the Purdna's,
VOL. I. 3 c fince
362 ON THE LITERATURE
fince they contain all the {lories of the Rdmdyam, Bhdraia, and
Bbagawata: they have accefs to many treatifes oi Alancdra, or Rheto-
rick, with a variety of works in modulated profe; to Vpdchydna, or
Civil Hiilory, called alfo Rdjatarangini; to the Ndtaca, which anfwers
to the Gdndharvaveda, confifting of regular Dramatick pieces in Sanfcrit
and Prdcrit: befides which they commonly get by heart fome entire
Diiflionary and Grammar. The beft Lexicon or Vocabulary was com-
pofed in verfe, for the affiftance of the memory, by the illuflrious Ama-
RASiNHA; but there Q.rt feventeen others in great repute: the be/l
Grammar is the Mugdhabodha^ or the Beauty of Knowledge, written by
Gofivdmiy named Vo'pade'va, and comprehending, in two hundred
fliort pages, all that a learner of the language can have occafion to
know. To the CoJJjas, or didlionaries, are ufually annexed very ample
Tkd's, or 'Etymological Commentaries.
We need fay no more of the heterodox writings, than that thofe
on the religion and philofophy of Buddha feem to be connedled with
fome of the moll: curious parts of Jljiatick Hiftory, and contain, per-
haps, all that could be found in the Pali, or facred language of the
Ezdern Indian peninfula. It is aflerted in Bengal, that Amarasinha
himfelf was a Bauddha-, but he feems to have been a theifl of tolerant
principles, and, like Abu'lfazl, defirous of reconciling the different
religions of India.
Wherever we dire<5t our attention to Hindu Literature, the notion of
infinity prefents itfelfj and the longefl life would not be fufficient for
the perufal of near five hundred thoufand ftanzas in the Purdna's, with
a million more perhaps in the other works before mentioned : we may,
however, felecft the beft from each Sdjlra, and gather the fruits of
fcience, without loading ourfelves with the leaves and branches j while
we have the pleafure to find, that the learned Hindus, encouraged by
the
OF THE HINDUS. 353
the mildnefs of our government and manners, are at leafl: as eager to
communicate their knowledge of all kinds, as we can be to receive it.
Since Europeans are indebted to the Dutch for almoft all they know of
Arabick, and to the French for all they know of Chinefe, let them now
receive from our nation the firft accurate knowledge of Sanfcrit, and of
the valuable works compofed in it; but, if they wifh to form a corre(fl:
idea of Indian religion and literature, let them begin with forgetting all
that has been written on the fubjed;> by ancients or moderns, before the
publication of the Gita.
ON
THE SECOND CLASSICAL BOOK
OF THE CHINESE.
BY
The president.
JL HE vicinity of C/jt'na to our Indian territories, from the capital of
which there are not more than ^x hundred miles to the province of
Yi/na'n, mufl neceffarily draw our attention to that moil ancient and
wonderful Empire, even if we had no commercial intercourfe with its
more diftant and maritime provinces ; and the benefits, that might be
derived from a more intimate connexion with a nation long famed for
their ufeful arts and for the valuable produdlions of their country, are
too apparent to require any proof or illuftration. My own inclinations
and the courfe of my ftudies lead me rather to confider at prefent their
laws, politicks, and morals, with which their general literature is clofely
blended, than their manufactures and trade; nor will I fpare either pains
or expenfe to procure tranflations of their mofl approved law-traBs ;
that I may return to Europe with diftindl: ideas, drawn from the fountain-
head, of the wifeft Afiatick legiflation. It will probably be a long time
before accurate returns can be made to my inquiries concerning the
Chinefe Laws -y and, in the interval, the Society will not, perhaps, be
difpleafed to know, that a tranflation of a nioft venerable and excellent
work may be expeded from Canton through the kind afliftance of an
ineflimable correfpondent.
According
366 ON THE SECOND CLASSICAL
According to a Chinefe Writer, named Li Yang Ping, * the ancient
* charaders ufed in his country were the outlines of vifible objedls
* earthly and celeftialj but, as things merely intelledual could not be
* exprefled by thofe figures, the grammarians of China contrived to re-
* prefent the various operations of the mind by metaphors drawn from
* the produdlions of nature : thus the idea of roughnefs and of rotun-
* dity, of motion and reft, were conveyed to the eye by figns reprefent-
* ing a mountain, the iky, a river and the earth j the figures of the fun,
* the moon, and the ftars, differently combined, ftood for fmoothnefs
' and fplendour, for any thing artfully wrought, or woven with delicate
' workmanfliip ; extenfion, growth, increafe, and many other qualities
' were painted in charadlers taken from clouds, from the firmament,
' and from the vegetable part of the creation; the different ways of
* moving, agility and flownefs, idlenefs and diligence, were expreffed by
« various infedls, birds, fifh, and quadrupeds : in this manner paffions
* and fentiments were traced by the pencil, and ideas not fubjed to any
' fenfe were exhibited to the fight ; until by degrees new combinations
' were invented, new expreffions added ; the charadlers deviated imper-
< ceptibly from their primitive iliape, and the Chinefe language became
' not only clear and forcible, but rich and elegant in the higheft degree.'
In this language, fo ancient and fo wonderfully compofed, are a mul-
titude of books abounding in ufeful, as well as agreeable, knowledge ;
but the higheft clafs confifts of Five works; one of which at leaft every
Chinefe, who afpires to literary honours, muft read again and again, until
he poffefs it perfetftly.
'Witfirfl is purely Hijlorical, containing annals of the empire from the
fwo-thoufand-three-hundred-thirty-feventh year before Christ: it is en-
titled Shu'king, and a verfion of it has been publiflied in France ; to
which country we are indebted for the moft authentick and moft valu-
able
BOOK OF THE CHINESE. 367
able fpecimens of Chinefe Hiftory and Literature, from the compofitions,
which preceded thofe of Homer, to the poetical works of the prefent
Emperor, who feems to be a man of the brightefl genius and the moil
amiable affetflioas. We may fmile, if we pleafe, at the levity of the
Frenchy as they laugh witliout fcruple at our ferioufnefs ; but let us not
fo far undervalue our rivals in arts and in arms, as to deny them their
juft commendation, or to relax our efforts in that noble ftruggle, by
which alone we can preferve our own eminence.
The Second Claffical work of the Chinefe contains three hundred Odes,
or fliort Poems, in praife of ancient fovereigns and legiflators, or de-
fcriptive of ancient manners, and recommending an imitation of them in
the difcharge of all publick and domeftick duties : they abound in wife
maxims, and excellent precepts, • their whole doiftrine, according to
* Cun-Jii-tfu, in the Lu'nyu or Moral Difcourfes , being reducible to
' this grand rule, that we fhould not even entertain a thought of any
* thing bafe or culpable;' but the copies of the Shi' King, for that is
the title of the book, are fuppofed to have been much disfigured, fince
the time of that great Philofopher, by fpurious paflages and exception-
able interpolations; and the ftyle of the Poems is in fome parts too me-
taphorical, while the brevity of other parts renders them obfcure; though
many think even this obfcurity fublime and venerable, like that of ancient
cloyflers and temples, 'Shedding, as MiltoiV expreffes it, a dim reUgious
' light.' There is another paflage in the Lu'nyu', which deferves to be
fet down at length : ' Why, my fons, do you not ftudy the book of
* Odes ? If we creep on the ground, if we lie ufelefs and inglorious>
' thofe poems will raife us to true glory: in them we fee, as in a mirror,
' what may beft become us, and what will be unbecoming; by their
* influence we fhall be made focial, affable, benevolent ; for, as mufick
* combines founds in juff melody, fo the ancient poetry tempers and
* compofes our paffions : the Odes teach us our duty to our parents at
' home.
368 ON THE SECOND CLASSICAL
* home, and abroad to our prince j they inftrudt us alfo delightfully in
' the various produdions of nature.' ' Haft thou fludied, faid the Phi-
* lofopher to his fon Peyu, the firft of the three hundred Odes on the
* nuptials of Prince Ve'nva'm, and the virtuous Tai Jin ? He, who
* fludies them not, refembles a man with his face againft a wall, unable
' to advance a ftep in virtue and wifdom.' Moft of thofe Odes are near
three thoufand years old, and fome, if we give credit to the Chinefe
annals, confiderably older ; but others are fomewhat more recent, hav-
ing been compofed under the later Emperors of the third family, called
Sheu. The work is printed in four volumes; and, towards the end of
thtfrji, we find the Ode, which Couplet has accurately tranflated at
the beginning of the Ta' hio, or Great Science, where it is finely am-
plified by the Philofopher : I produce the original from the Shi' King
Itfelf, and from the book, in which it is cited, together with a double
verfion, one verbal and another metrical ; the only method of doing
juftice to the poetical compofitions of the Afiaticks. It is a panegyrick
on Vucu'n, Prince of Guey in the province of Honang, who died, near
a century old, in the thirteenth year of the Emperor Vi^^gvk^g, feven
hundred and ffty-fix years before the birth of Christ, or one hundred
znA. forty-eight, according to Sir Isaac Newton, after the taking of
Troy, fo that the Chinefe Poet might have been contemporary with
Hesiod and Homer, or at leaft muft have written the Ode before the
Iliad and OdyJJ'ey were carried info Greece by Lycurgus.
The verbal tranflation of the thirty-two original charafters is this :
* Behold yon reach of the river Ki;
* Its green reeds how luxuriant ! how luxuriant !
* Thus is our Prince adorned with virtues j
* As a carver, as a filer, of ivory,
17 18 1920
' As a cutter, as a polilher, of gems.
' O how
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BOOK OF THE CHINESE. 359
' O how elate and fagacious ! O how dauntlefs and compofed !
* How worthy of fame ! How worthy of reverence !
IS 17:8 26
' We have a Prince adorned with virtues,
29 30 31 32
* Whom to the end of time we can not forget.
The PARAPHRASE.
Behold, where yon blue riv'let glides
Along the laughing dale ;
Light reeds bedeck, its verdant fides.
And frolick in the gale:
So fhines our Prince ! In bright array
The Virtues round him wait ;
And fweetly fmil'd th' aufpicious day,
That rais'd Him o'er our State.
As pliant hands in fhapes refin'd
Rich iv'ry carve and fmoothe.
His Laws thus mould each dudlile mind.
And every paflion foothe.
As gems are taught by patient art
In fparkling ranks to beam.
With Manners thus he forms the heart.
And fpreads a gen'ral gleam.
What foft, yet awful, dignity !
What meek, yet manly, grace !
What fweetnefs dances in his eye.
And bloflbms in his face !
VOL. I. 3d So
370 ON THE SECOND CLASSICAI
So fhines our Prince ! A fky-born crowd
Of Virtues round him blaze :
Ne'er fhall Oblivion's murky cloud
Obfcure his deathlefs praife.
The predidion of the Poet has hitherto been accomplilhed ; but he
little imagined, that his compolition would be admired, and his Prince
celebrated in a language not then formed, and by the natives of regions
fo remote from his own.
In the tenth leaf of the Ta' Hio a beautiful comparifon is quoted
from another Ode in the Shi' King, which deferves to be exhibited in
the fame form with the preceding :
' The peach-tree, how fair 1 how graceful I
* Its leaves, how blooming ! how pleafant !
3010 II ^
' Such is a bride, when fhe enters her bridegroom's houie,
' And pays due attention to her whole family.
The fimile may thus be rendered :
Gay child of Spring, the garden's queen.
Yon peach-tree charms the roving fight :
Its fragrant leaves how richly green !
Its bloffoms how divinely bright !
So foftly fmiles the blooming bride
By love and confcious Virtue led
O'er her new manfion to prefide.
And placid joys around her fpread.
The
BOOK OF THE CHINESE. 3/1
The next leaf exhibits a comparifon of a different nature, rather
fublime than agreeable, and conveying rather cenfure than praife:
O how horridly impends yon fouthern mountain!
56 ' ^ 1
Its rocks in how vaft, how rude a heap !
Thus 'loftily thou 'littefl:, o' minifter of YN ;
All the people look up to thee with dread.
Which may be thus paraphrafed:
See, where yon crag's imperious height
The funny highland crowns.
And, hideous as the brow of night,
Above the torrent frowns !
So fcowls the Chief, whofe will is law,
Regardlefs of our ftate;
While millions gaze with painful awe,
With fear allied to hate.
It was a very ancient practice in China to paint or engrave moral
fentences and approved verfes on veffels in conftant ufe; as the words
Renew Thyself Daily were infcribed on the bafon of the Emperor
Tang, and the poem of Kien Long, who is now on the throne, in
praife of Tea, has been publifhed on a fet of porcelain cups; and, if the
defcription juft cited of a felhfli and infolent ftatefman were, in the
fame manner, conftantly prefented to the eyes and attention of rulers,
it might produce fome benefit to their fubjefts and to themfelves ; efpe-
cially if the comment of Tsem Tsu, who may be called the Xenophon,
as CuN Fu' Tsu' was the Socrates, and Mem Tsu the Plato, of
China, were added to illullrate and enforce it.
If
372 ON THE SECOND CLASSICAL
If the reft: of the three hundred Odes be fimilar to the fpecimens ad-
duced by thofe great moralift:s in their works, which the French have
made pubUck, I fliould be very felicitous to procure our nation the ho-
nour of bringing to Ught the/fffoW Claffical book of the Chinefe. The
third, called Yeking, or the book of Changes, believed to have been
written by Fo, the Hermes of the Eaft:, and confift:ing of right lines
varioufly difpofed, is hardly intelligible to the mofl: learned Mandarins;
and CuN Fu Tsu' himfelf, who was prevented by death from accom-
plifliing his defign of elucidating it, was diffatisfied with all the inter-
pretations of the earlieft; commentators. As to xh.&Jifth, or LiKi, which
that excellent man compiled from old monuments, it confift:s chiefly of
the Chinefe ritual, and of trads on Moral Duties; but the. fourth entitled
Chung Cieu, or Spring and Autumn, by which the fame incomparable
writer meaned the fouriJJ.nng fliate of an Empire, under a virtuous mo-
narch, and tht fall of kingdoms, under bad governors, muft: be an inte-
reftiing work in every nation. The powers, however, of an individual
are fo limited, and the field of knowledge is fo vaft:, that I dare not
promife more, than to procure, if any exertions of mine will avail, a
complete tranflation of the Shi' King, together with an authentick
abridgement of the Chinefe Laws, civil and criminal. A native of Can-
ton, whom I knew fome years ago in England, and who pafled his firft
examinations with credit in his way to literary diftinftions, but was
afterwards allured from the purfuit of learning by a profpedl of fuccefs
in trade, has favoured me with the Three Hundred Odes in the original,
together with the Lu'n Yu', a faithful verfion of which was publifhed
at Paris near a century ago ; but he feems to think, that it would re-
quire three or four years to comple'te a tranflation of them; and Mr.
Cox informs me, that none of the Chinefe, to whom he has accefs,
poffrfs leifure and perfeverance enough for fuch a tafk; yet he hopes, with
the afliftance of Whang Atong, to fend me next feafon fome of the
poems tranflated into EngUfj, A little encouragement would induce
this
BOOK OF THE CHINESE. 373
this young Chinefe to vifit India, and fome of his countrymen would,
perhaps, accompany him ; but, though confiderable advantage to the
publick, as well as to letters, m-ght be reaped from the knowledge and
ingenuity of fuch emigrants, yet we muft wait for a time of greater na-
tional wealth and profperity, before fuch a meafure can be formally re-
commended by us to our patrons at the helm of government.
THE LUNAR YEAR OF THE HINDUS.
BY
The president.
Jrl WING lately met by accident with a wonderfully curious tradl
of the learned and celebrated Raghunandana, containing a full ac-
count of all the rites and ceremonies in the lunar year, I twice pe-
rufed it with eagernefs, and prefent the Society with a corredt out-
line of it, in the form of a calendar, iiluilrated with fhort notes : the
many paffages quoted in it from the Vedas, the Purdnas, the Sdjlras of
law and aftronomy, the Culpa, or facred ritual, and other works of im-
memorial antiquity and reputed holinefs, would be thought highly in-
terefting by fuch as take pleafure in refearches concerning the Hindus j
but a tranflation of them all would fill a confiderable volume, and
fuch only are exhibited as appeared mofl diftinguiilied for elegance or
novelty.
The lunar year of three hundred and fixty days, is apparently more
ancient in India than the folar, and began, as we may infer from a' verfc
in the Matfya, witli the month A'fwini fo called, becaufe the moon was
at the full, when that name was impofed, in the firft lunar ftation of
the Hindu ecliptick, the origin of which, being diametrically oppofite
to the bright ftar Cbitra, may be afcertained in our fphere with exadt-
nefs J but, although moft of the Indian fafts and feftivals be regulated by
the days of the moon, yet the mofl: folemn and remarkable of them
have
376 THE LUNAR YEAR
have a manifefl: reference to the fuppofed motions of the fun ; the
Durgotfava and Holica relating as clearly to the autumnal and vernal
equinoxes, as the fleep and rife of Vishnu relate to the folftices : the
Sancrantisy or days on which the fun enters a new iign, efpecially thofe
o^ Tula and Mejha, are great feftivals of the folar year, which anciently
began with Paujha near the winter folftice, whence the month Marga-
s'irfia has the name oi A'grahdyana, or the year is next before. The
twelve months, now denominated from as many ftations of the moon,
feem to have been formerly peculiar to the lunar year ; for the old
folar months, beginning with Chaitra, have the following very different
names in a curious text of the Veda on the order of the fix Indian
feafons ; Madhii, Mddhava, Sucra, Such', Nabhas., Nabhafya, I fa, Urja,
Sahas, Sahafya, Tapas, Tapajya. It is neceffary to premife, that the
muchya chandra, or primary lunar month, ends with the conjun<ftion,
and the gauna chandra, or fecondary, with the oppofition : both modes of
reckoning are authorized by the feveral Purdnas ; but, although the
aftronomers of Cqfi have adopted the gauna month, and place in Bhd~
dra the birth-day of their paftoral god, the muc'hya is here preferred,
becaufe it is generally ufed in this province, and efpecially at the
ancient feminary of Brdhf?iens at Mdydpur, now called Navadwipa,
becaufe a new iflajid has been formed by the Ganges on the lite of the
old academy. The Hindus define a tit' hi, or lunar day, to be the time,
in which the moon pafl'es through twelve degrees of her path, and
to each pacfa, or half month, they allot fifteen tit' his, though they
divide the moon's orb inio fixteen phafes, named Calds, one of which
they fuppofe confiant, and compare to the firing of a necklace or chap-
let, round which are placed moveable gems and flowers : the Mabd-
cald is the day of the conjundlion, called ^w«, ox Amd'vdfyd, and defined
by GoBHiL A, the day of the neareji approach to the fun ; on which obfe-
quies are performed to the manes of the Pitris, or certain progenitors
of the human race, to whom the darker fortnight is peculiarly facred.
Many
OF THE HINDUS. 377
Many fubtile points are difcufled by my author concerning the junSlion
of two or even three lunar days in forming one fafl: or feftival ; but
fuch a detail can be ufeful only to the Brahmens, who could not guide
their flocks, as the Raja of Crijhnanagar aflfures me, without the aflift-
ance of Raghunandan. So fond are the Hindus of mythological
perfoniiications, that they reprefent each of the thirty tit'his as a
beautiful nymph j and the Gayatritantra, of which Sannyasi made me
a prefent, though he confidered it as the holiefl book after the Veda,
contains flowery defcriptions of each nymph, much refembling the de-
lineations of the thirty Raginis, in the treatifes on Indian muiick.
In what manner the Hindus contrive fo far to reconcile the lunar and
folar years, as to make them proceed concurrently in their ephemerides,
might eafily have been fhown by exhibiting a verfion of the Nadiya or
Vardnes almanack ; but their modes of intercalation form no part of my
prefent fubjedl, and would injure the fimplicity of my work, without
throwing any light on the religion of the Hindus. The following tables
have been very diligently compared by myfelf with two Sanfcrit alma-
nacks, with a fuperficial chapter in the work of Abu'lfazl, and with
a lifl: oi Indian holidays publifhed at Calcutta; in which there are nine
or ten fafl:s called Jayajitis, diflinguifhed chiefly by the titles of the
Avatdras, and twelve or thirteen days marked as the beginnings of as
many Calpas, or very long periods, an hundred of which conftitute
Brahma"s age ; but having found no authority for thofe holidays, I have
omitted them: feme fefliivals, however, or fails, which are pafled over
in filence by Raghunandan, are here printed in Italick letters; be-
caufe they may be mentioned in other books, and kept holy in other
provinces or by particular fcdls. I cannot refrain from adding, that
human facrifices were anciently made on the Mabanavami -, and it is de-
clared in the Bhaivijhya Pur and, that the head of a Jlaughtered man gives
Durga' a thoujand times more fatisfaSf ion than that of a buffalo:
VOL. 1. 3 E N arena
378 THE LUNAR YEAR
Narena s'irasa vira piijita vidhiwannripa,
tripta bhawed bhris am Durga verjhani lacjliamevacha.
But in the Brahma every neramedha, ot facrijice of a man, is exprefsly
forbidden ; and in the fifth book of the Bhdgaivai are the following
emphatical words: " Te tiiiha vat purujhdh puriiJJmmedhena yajante,
" ydjcha Jiriyo nrtpasun chddanti, tdnfcha tafcJia te pafava iba 7iihatd,
" yama sddane ydtayanto, racjhogana Jaunted iva Jiidhittind 'vaddyajnc
" pivanti', " that is, " Whatever men in this world facrifice human
" viftims, and, whatever women eat the fleili of male cattle, thofe men
" and thofe women fliall the animals here flain torment in the iiianfioa
" cf Yama, and, like flaughtering giants, having cleaved their limbs
** with axes, lliall quaff their blood." It may feem ilrange, that a
human facrijice by a man fliould be no greater crime than eating the
flefli of a male beall by a woman ; but it is held a mortal offence to kill
any creature, except for facrifice, and none but males muff ever be
facrificed, nor muff women, except after the performance of z. Jrdddha
by their hulbands, tafte the flefli even of vidims. Many flrange cere-
monies at the Durgotjava flill fubfill: among the Hindus both male and
female, an account of which might elucidate fome very obfcure parts
of the Mojaick law; but this is not a place for fuch difquifitions. The
ceremony oi Jwingittg with iron hooks through the mufcles, on the
day of the Cherec, was introduced, as I am credibly informed, in modern
times, by a fuperftitious prince, named Fdna, who was a Saiva of the
moft auftere fe<fl : but the cuftom is bitterly cenfured by learned Hindus^
and the day is, therefore, omitted in the following abridgement of the
Tit'bi lativa.
OF THE HINDUS. 379
A'SWINA.
I. Navaratricam. a.
II.
III. Acfhayi. b.
IV.
V. Sayam-adhlvafa. c.
VI. Shaftyadicalpa bodhanam. d.
VII. Patrica-pravefa. e.
VIII. Mahafhtami fandhipuja.
IX. Mahanavami. f. Manwantara. g.
X. Vijaya. h.
XL
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV. ATwini Cojagara. /.
a. By fome the firft nine nights are allotted to the decoration of
Durga' with ceremonies peculiar to each. Bhawijhyottara,
b. When certain days of the moon fall on certain days of the week,
they are called acJJ:iayds, or unperiJJiable.
c. The evening preparation for her drefs.
d. On
380 THE LUNAR YEAR
d. On this day flie is commonly awakened, and her feftival begins.
Devi-purdna.
e. She is invited to a bower of leaves from nine plants, of which the
Bilva is the chief.
f. The lafl of the three great days. " The facrificed beafls muft be
" killed at one blow with a broad fword or a fharp axe."
Cdlicdpiirdna.
g. The fourteen days, named Manwaiitards, are fuppofed to be the
iirll of as many very long periods, each of which was the reign of a
Menu: they are all placed according to the Bbawipya and Matfya.
b. The goddefs difmifled with reverence, and her image cafl: into
the river, but without Mantras. ' Baiidhdyana,
i. On this full moon the fiend Nicumbha led his army againfl
Durga'; and Lacshmi defcended, promifing wealth to thofe who were
awake : hence the night is pafTed in playing at ancient chefs. Cuve'ra
alfo and Indra are worihipped. Lainga and Brahma.
AswiNA :
OF THE HINDUS. 381
Aswina:
or Cdrtica.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII. Dagdha. a.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV. Bhutachaturdasi Yamaterpanam. B.
XV. Lacflimipuja dipanwita. c. Syamapuja. Ulcadanam. d.
a. The days called dagdha, or burnt, are variable, and depend on
fome inaufpicious conjunftions. Vidyd-firomani,
b. Bathing and libations to Yama, regent of the fouth or the lower
world, and judge of departed fpirits. Lainga.
c. A fad
382 THE LUNAR YEAR
c. A fafl: all day, and a great feflival at night, in honour of Lacshmi,
* with illuminations on trees and houfes : invocations are made at the
fame time to Cuve'ra. Rudra-dhera.
" On this night, when the Gods, having been delivered by Ce'sava,
" were flumbering on the rocks, that bounded the fea of milk, Lacshmi',
" no longer fearing the Dattyas, flept apart on a lotos." Brahma.
d. Flowers are alfo offered on this day to Sya'mV, or the black, an
epithet of Bhava'ni, who appears in the Calijug, as a damfel twelve
years old. Fdrdnasz Panjicd.
Torches and flaming brands are kindled and confecrated, to burn the
bodies of kinfmen, who may be dead in battle or in a foreign country,
and to light them through the fhades of death to the manfion of
Yam A. Brdhma.
Thefe rites bear a flriking refemblance to thofe of Ceres and Pro-
serpine.
Ca'rtica.
OF THE HINDUS. 383
Ca'R TIC A.
I. Dyuta pratipat. a. Belipuja. &,
II. Bhratri dwitiya. c.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII. Acfhaya.
VIII. Gofht'hafhtami. d.
IX. Durga navami. e. Yugadya. f.
X.
XI. Utt'hanaicadasi. g. Baca panchacam.
XII. Manwantara.
XIII.
XIV. Srihererutt" hanatn.
XV. Cartici. Manwantara. Danamavafyacam. h.
a. Maha'de'va was beaten on this day at a game of chance by Pa'r-
vATi': hence games of chance are allowed in the morning; and the
winner expefts a fortunate year. Brahma.
b, A nightly feftival, with illuminations and offerings of flowers, in
honour of the ancient king Beli. Vdmena.
c. Yama.
384 THE LUNAR YEAR
c. Yam A, child of the Sun, was entertained on this lunar day by
the river-goddefs Yamuna', his younger fifter : hence the day is
facred to them both ; and fifters give entertainments to their brothers,
who make prefents in return. tLainga Mahabhdrata.
d. Cows are on this day to be fed, care (Ted, and attended in their
paftures ; and the Hindus are to walk round them witia ceremony,
keeping them always to the right hand. Bhima pardcrama.
e. " To eat nothing but dry rice on this day of the moon for
*' nine fucceflive years, will fecure the favour of Durga."
Cdlicd pur ana.
f. The firfl: day of the Tretd Tuga. Faifinava. Brdhtna.
g. Vishnu rifes on this day, and in fome years on x^at fourteenth,
from his flumber of four months. He is waked by this incantation : " The
*' clouds are difperfed; the full moon will appear in perfeft brightnefs;
*' and I come, in hope of acquiring purity, to offer the frefh flowers of
** the feafon : awake from thy long flumber, awake, O Lord of all
" worlds !" Vdrdha. Mdtfya.
The Lord of all worlds neither llumbers nor fleeps.
A ftridl faft is obferved on the eleventh ; and even the Baca, a water-
bird, abftains, it is faid, from his ufual food. Vidydjiromani.
h. Gifts to Brdhmens are indifpenfably neceflary on this day.
Rdrndyana.
Ca'rtica:
OF THE HINDUS. 385
Ca'rtica:
or Mdrgasirjha.
I.
n.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV. Acfhaya.
XV. Gofahafn. a.
a. Bathing in the Gangd, and other appointed ceremonies, on this
day will be equally rewarded with a gift of a thoufand cows to the
Brdhmens. Vydfa.
VOL. I. 3 F Ma'RGASI'rSHA.
186 THE LUNAR YEAR
Ma'rgasi'rsha.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI. Guha fhafhti. a.
VII. Mitrafeptami. b. Navannam.
VIII. Navannam.
IX.
X.
XT.
XII. Ac'handa dwddafi, Navannam.
XIII.
XIV. Pafhana chaturdasi. c.
XV. Margasirlhi. Navannam.
a. Sacred to Scanda, or Ca'rtice'ya, God of Arms.
Bha'wijJ^ya.
b. In honour of the Sun. Navannam fignifies new grainy oblations
of which are made on any of the days to which the word is annexed.
c. Gauri' to be worfhipped at night, and cakes of rice to be eaten
in the form of large pebbles. Bhaisoipya.
Ma'rgasi'rsha :
OF THE HINDUS. 387
Ma'rgasi'rsha:
or PauJI^a.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII, Pupafhtaca. a.
IX. Dagdhd.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
a. Cakes of rice are offered on this day, which is alfo called Aindri,
from Indra, to the Manes of anceflors. Gobhila.
Pausha.
388 THE LUNAR YEAR
Pausha.
I. The morning of the Gods, or beginning of the old Hindu year.
II. Dagdhd,
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI. Manwantara.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV. Paufhi.
Pausha
ON THE HINDUS. 389
Pausha:
or Mdgha.
I.
11.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII. Mansafhtaca. a.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV. Ratanti, or the waters j^^^i. b.
XV.
a. On this day, called alfo Prdjdpatyd, from Prajdpati, or the Lord
of Creatures, the flefh of male kids or wild deer is offered to the Manes.
Gdbbila.
*' On the eighth lunar day, Icshwa'cu" fpoke thus to his fon Vi-
** cucsHi: Go, robuft youth, and having {lain a male deer, bring his
'* flefli for the funeral oblation." Hcrivansa.
b. Bathing at the firil appearance of Aruna, or the dawn. Tama.
Ma'gha.
3go THE LUNAR YEAR
Ma'gha.
I.
II.
III.
IV. Varada chaturt'hi. Gaun'puja. a.
V. Sri panchami. b.
VI.
VII. Bhafcara feptaml. c. Macari. Manwantara.
VIII. Bhifhmafhtami. d.
IX. Mahdnandd.
X.
XI. Bhaimi. e.
XII. Shattiladanam. f.
XIII.
XIV.
XV. Maghi. Yugadya. g. Danamavafyacam.
a. The worfhip of Gauri', furnamed Varadd, or granting boons.
Bhawijhyottara.
b. On this lunar day Saraswati , here called SrT, the goddcfs of
arts and eloquence, is worihipped with offerings of perfumes, flowers,
and drefled rice : even the implements of writing and books are treated
with refpeft and not ufed on this holiday. Samvatfara pradipa.
A Meditation on Saraswati.
* May the goddefs of fpeech enable us to attain all poflible felicity;
* fhe.
OF THE HINDUS. 39 1
' fhe, who wears on her locks a young moon, who fhines with exquifite
* luftre, whofe body bends with the weight of her full breafls, who fits
* reclined on a white lotos, and from the crimfon lotos of her hands
' pours radiance on the inftruments of writing, and on the books pro-
* duced by her favour !' Sdradd tilaca.
c. A faft in honour of the Sun, as zform of Vishnu. Far aha piirdna.
It is called -Aio Mdcari from the conftellation oiMacara, into which
the Sun enters on the firfl of the folar Mdgha. Critya calpa taru.
This day has alfo the names of Rat'hyd and Rat'hafeptamtj becaufe it
was the beginning of a Manwantard, when a new Sun afcended his car.
Ndrafinha. Mdtfya.
d. A libation of holy water is offered by all the four clafTes to the
Manes of the valiant and pious Bhi'shma, fon of Ganga'.
Bhawijljyottara .
e. Ceremonies with tilay or fefamumy in honour of Bhi'ma.
Vijhnu dherma.
f. Tila offered in Jix different modes. Mdtfya.
g. The firll day of the Caliyuga, Brdhma^
Ma'Gha;
392 THE LUNAR YEAR
Ma'gha:
or P'hdlguna,
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII. Sacaflitaca. a.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV. Siva ratri. b.
XV.
a. Green vegetables are offered on this day to the Manes of anceflors :
it is called alfo Vaifwedevifct from the Vaifwedevahy or certain paternal
progenitors. Gobhila,
b. A rigorous faft, with extraordinary ceremonies in honour of the
Sivalinga or Phallus. I'fdnafatnhitd.
P'ha'lguna.
OF THE HINDUS. 393
P'ha'j-gun a;
I.
II.
III.
IV. Dagdhd.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIIL
IX.
X.
XI.
XII. Govinda dwadasi. a,
XIII.
XIV.
XV. P'halguni. Manv/anfara. Dolayatra. 6.
a. Bathing in the Gangd for the remiffion of mortal fins. Pdcima.
b. Holica, or P' halgiitfava^ vulgarly i7«/z, the great feftival on the
approach of the vernal equinox.
Kings and people /port on this day in honour of Govinda, who is car-
ried in a dola, or palanquin. Brahma. Scdnda.
VOL.1. 3g P'ha'lguna:
3Q4 THE LUNAR YEAR
P'ha'lgun a:
or Chaitra.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII. Skald pujd,
IX.
X.
XL
XIL
XIII. Mahdvdruni?
XIV.
XV. Mauni. a. Acfhaya. Manwantara.
a. Bathing mjilenc^. Vydfa. Scdndn.
CWAITRA.
OF THE HINDUS. 39 5
Chaitra.
I. The lunijolar year of Vicrama'ditya begins.
II.
III. Manwantara.
IV.
V.
VI. Scanda-fhafliti. a. .
VII.
VIII. Asocaflitami. b.
IX. Srirama-navami. c^
X.
XL
XIL
XIIJ. Madana-trayodasx. d..
XIV. Madana-chaturdasi. e.
XV. Chaitri. Manwantara.
a. Sacred to Ca'rtice'ya, the God of War> Devi-purma.
b. Men and women of all claffes ought to bathe in fbme holy flream,
and, if poflible, in the Brahmaputra : they fliould alfo drink water with
buds of the Asoca floating on it. Scanda.
c. The birthday ofRA'iMA Chandra. Ceremonies are to be per-
formed with the myflical ftone Sdlagrdma and leaves of Tidasi. jigajlya.
d. A
396 THE LUNAR YEAR
d. A feflival In honour of Ca'ma de'va, God of Love. BhaiviJJjya.
e. The fame continued with mufick and bathing.
Saurdgama. Devala.
The Hymn to Ca'ma.
1. Hail, God of the flowery bow ; hail, warriour with a fifh on thy
banner ; hail, powerful divinity, who caufeft the firmnefs of the fage to
forfake him, and fubdueft the guardian deities of eight regions !
2. O Candarpa, thou fon of Ma'dhava ! O Ma'ra, thou foe of
Sambhara ! Glory be given to thee, who loveft the goddefs Reti;
to thee, by whom all worlds are fubdued ; to thee, who fpringefi: from
the heart !
3. Glory be to Madana, to Ca'ma ; to Him, who is formed as the
God of Gods ; to Him, by whom Brahma', Vishnu, Siva, Indra,
are filled with emotions of rapture !
4. May all my mental cares be removed, all my corporal fufferings
terminate ! May the objeft of my foul be attained, and my felicity con-
tinue for ever ! Bhaunfiya-pwdna.
Chaitra
OF THE HINDUS. 397
Chaitra:
or Vaisac'/ja.
I.
II. Dagdhd.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII. Varum, a.
XIV. Angaraca dinam. b.
XV.
a. So called from Vdruna, or the lunar conftellatlon Satabhljl.^a :
when it falls on Saturday, it is named Mahdvdrunt. Bathing by day
and at night in the Gangd. Scdnda.
b. Sacred, I believe, to the planet Mangala. " A bi-anch of Sniihi
*' (Riiphorbia) in a whitened veflel, placed with a red flag on the
" houfetop, on the fourteenth of the dark half of Chaitra, drives away
" fin and difeafe." Rdja mdrtanda,
Vaisa'c'ha :
398 THE LUNAR YEAR
Vaisa'c'h A.
I.
II.
III. Acfhaya tritiya. a, Yugad)4. b. Paras' urdma»
IV.
V.
VI. Dagdha.
VII. Jahnufeptami.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII. Pipitaca dwadasi. e^
XIII.
XIV. Nrljinha chaturdasi.
XV. Vais'ac'hi. Danamavafyacam.
a. Gifts on this day of water and grain, efpecially of barley, witH
oblations to Crishna of perfumes, and other religious rites, produce
fruit without end in the next world. Scdnda. Brahma^ Bhdwijl.ya,
b. The firft day of the Satya yuga. Brahma. VaiJJmava.
" Water and oil of tila, offered on the Yuglidyds to the Pitrts, or
" progenitors of mankind,, are equal to obfequies continued for a thou-
" fand years." Vijhnu-purdna.
This
OF THE HINDUS. 3f)9
This was alfo the day, on which the river Ganga flowed from the
foot of ViJImu down upon Himalaya, where ilie was received on the
head of Siva, and led afterwards to the ocean by king Bhagirafha :
hence adoration is now paid to Gangdy Himalaya, Sancara, and his
mountain Cailafa ; nor mull Bhdgirat'ha be negledled. Brahma.
c. Libations to the Manes. Raghunandan.
Note on p. 393.
Dolaydtra. b.
Compare this hohday and the fuperftition on the fourth of Bhadrd
with the two Egyptian feftivals mentioned by Plutarch j one called
the entrance of Osiris into the Moon, and the other, his confinement or
inclofure in an Ark,
The people ufually claim four other days for their fports, and
fprinkle one another with a red powder in imitation of vernal flowers:
it is commonly made with the mucilaginous root of a fragrant plant,
coloured with Bakkam, or Sappan-vfoodi, a little alum being added to
fixtrad and fix the rednefs-
Vaisa'g'ha
400 THE LUNAR YEAR
Vaisa'c'ha:
or yyaiJJnt' ha.
I.
II.
III.
IV. Dagdha.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XL
XII.
XIII.
XIV. Savitri vratam. a.
XV.
a. A faft, with ceremonies by women, at the roots of the Indian fig-
tree, to preferve them from widowhood.
Pardfara. Rdjamartanda. Critya chintam£nL
Jyaisht'ha.
OF THE HINDUS. 401
Jyaisht'ha.
I.
II.
III. Rembha tritiya. a.
IV.
V.
VI. Aranya fliafhti. b.
VII. Acjhaya,
VIII.
IX.
X. Dafahara. c.
XL Nirjalaicddas L d.
XII.
XIII.
XIV. Champaca chaturdasi. e.
XV. Jyaiflit'hi. Manwantara.
a. On this day of the moon the Hindu women imitate Rembha',
the feaborn goddefs of beauty, who bathed on the fame day, with par-
ticular ceremonies. Bhawijloyottara.
b. Women walk in the forejls with a fan in one hand, and eat cer-
tain vegetables in hope of beautiful children. Raja 77idrta7ida.
VOL. I. 3 H Sec
402 THE LUNAR YEAR
See the account given by Pliny of the Druidical mifletoe, or vt/cum^
which was to be gathered, when the moon was/x days old, as a pre-
fer vative irom Jierility.
c. The word means ten-removing, or removing ten Jins, an epithet of
Gangdy who effaces ten fms, how heinous foever, committed in ten pre-
vious births by fuch as bathe in her waters. Brahma-vaiverta.
A Couplet by Sanc'ha.
«* On the tenth of Jyaipfhay in the bright half of the month, on
" the day of Mangala, fon of the Earth, when the moon was in
** Hajlciy this daughter of Jahnu burft from the rocks, and flowed over
" the land inhabited by mortals : on this lunar day, therefore, fhe
" wafhes off ten fms (thus have the venerable fages declared) and
'* gives an hundred times more felicity, than could be attained by a
" vs\^x\^.^ oi Afwamidhas, ox facrifices of a horfe."
d. A faft fo flridl, that even water muff not be tafted.
f . A feftival, I fuppofe, with the flowers of the Champaca.
Jyaisht'ha:
OF THE HINDUS. 403
Jyaisht'ha:
or A'Jhdrha.
I.
II.
III.
IV. Bagdha.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X. AmbuvachI pradam. a,
XL
XII.
XIII. AmbuvachI tyagah.
XIV.
XV. Gofahafri.
a. The Earth in her courfes till the thirteenth. Jyo'tijh,
A'sha'd"ha.
404 THE LUNAR YEAR
A'SHA'r)''HA.
I.
II. Rat'ha Yatra. a.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X. Manwantara.
XI. Sayanaicadasi. Ratrau s'ayanam. ^.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV. A'fliarhi. Manwantara. Danamavafyacam.
a. The image of Crishna, in the character of 'jaganndt'ha, or
Lord of the Univerfe, is borne by day in a car, together with thofe
of Balara'ma and Subhadra; when the moon, rifes, the feaft
begins, but muft end, as foon as it fets. Scdnda.
h. The night of the Gods beginning with the fummer folftice,
Vishnu repofes four months on the ferpent Se'sha.
Bhdgavata. Mdtfya. Vdrdha.
A'sha'd'ha:
OF THE HINDUS. 405
A'sha'd'h a:
or Srdvana.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V. Manasapanchami, a.
VI. Dagdhd.
VII.
VIII. Manwantara.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
a. In honour of Dev\ the goddefs of nature, furnamed Manafa^
who, while Vishnu and all the Gods were fleeping, fat In the fhape
of a ferpent on a branch of Snubty to preferve mankind from the venom
of fnakes. Garuda. Devipurdna.
Sra'vana.
406 THE LUNAR YEAR
Sra'vana.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V. Nagapanch^mi. a.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X. .
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV. S'ravani.
a. Sacred to the demigods in the form of Serpents, who are enu-
merated in the Pedma, and Garuda, piirdnas. Doors of houfes are
fmeared with cow-dung and Nimba-Xezv^?., as a prefervative from poi-
fonous reptiles. Bhawipya. Retnacara.
Both in the Padma and Garuda we find the ferpent Ca'liya, whom
Crishna flew in his childhood, among the deities worftiipped on this
day; as the Pythian fnake, according to Clemens, was adored with
Apollo at Delphi.
Sra'vana:
OF THE HINDUS. 407
S R A' V A N A : or Bhadra.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII. Dagdhd.
VIII. Crifhnajanmaflitami. a. Jayanti. b.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII. Yugadya. c.
XIV.
XV. Amavafya.
a. The birthday of Crishna, fon of Maha'ma'Y^a in the form of
De'vac^I. Vas'ijhi'ha. BhawiJJjyottara.
b. A flri(fl fall: from midnight. In the book, entitled Dwaita nir-
naya, it is faid that the Jayanti yoga happens, whenever the moon is in
Rohitii on the eigbtb of any dark fortnight; but Vara'ha Mihira
confines it to the time, when the Sun is in Sinba. This fafl, during
which Chandra and Ro'hin'i are worfliipped, is alfo called Rohini
vrata. Brdbmanda.
c. The firll day of the Dwdpara Ytiga. Brdhma,
408 THE LUNAR YEAR
Bhadra.
I.
II,
III. Manwantara.
IV. Heritdlica. Ganefa chaturt'hL Nafhtachandra. a.
V. RtJJ.H panchafm.
VI.
VII. Acihaya lalita. b.
VIII. Durvafhtami. c.
IX.
X.
XL Parfwaperivertanam. d.
XIL S'acrott'hanam. e.
XIIL
XIV. Ananta vratam. f.
XV. Bhadn.
a. Crishna, falfely accufed in his childhood of having flolen a gem
from Prase'n A, who had been killed by a lion, hid himfelfin the moon ;
to fee which on the iv70 fourth days of Bhadra is inaufpicious.
Brahma. Bhojade'va.
b. A ceremony, called Cuccuti vratam, performed by women in
honour of Siva and Durga'. BhanviJJoya.
c. " The
OF THE HINDUS. 40()
c. " The family of him, who performs holy rites on this lunar day,
" fliall flourifh and increafe like the grafs durva." It is the rayed
Agrostis. Bhawijhyottara,
d. Vishnu fleeping turns on his fide. Mdtfya. BhawiJJ.ya.
e. Princes ered poles adorned with flowers, by way of ilandards, in
honour of Indra : the ceremonies are minutely defcribed in the CMca
purdna.
f. Sacred to Vishnu with the title of Ananta, or Infinite.
BhawiJJjyottara.
.7 b oxi . a
VOL. I. 3 I Bha'dRA:
410 THE LUNAR YEAR
B H a' D R A .
or A'fwina.
I. Aparapacflia. Brahma sdvkr}, ,.- h'^nirh^: c^f-^'t f:.;
II. :■■■'..
III.
IV. Naflita- Chandra. ..jjij 5^3 j-LIw uxaai
V.
VI.
VII. Agaflyodayah. a.
VIII.
IX. Bodhanam. />.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII. Maghatrayodasi frdddham.
XIV.
XV. Mahalaya. Amavafya.
a. Three days before the fun enters the conftellation of Canyd, let
the people, who dwell in Gaura, offer a difh of flowers to Agastya.
Brahma-vaiverta.
Having poured water into a fea-ftiell, let the votary fill it with white
flowers and unground rice : then, turning to the fouth, let him offer it
with
OF THE HINDUS. 4 1 i
with this incantation: * Hail, Cumbhayo'ni, born in the fight of
* MiTRA and Varuna, bright as the bloflbm of the grafs cafa; thou,
* who fprangeft from Agni and Ma'ruta.' Cafa is the Spontaneous
Sac CHAR UM. Ndrafinha.
This is properly a feflival of the folar year, in honour of the fage
Agastya, fuppofed, after his death, to prefide over the flar Canopus.
b. Some begin on this day, and continue till the ninth of the new
moon, the great feftival, called Durgotfava, in honour of Durga', the
goddefs of nature ; who is now awakened with fports and mufick, as fhe
was waked in the beginning by Brahma' during the night of the Gods.
Calicd purdfia.
Note on p. 383.
Utt'hanaicadasi. g.
In one almanack I fee on this day Tulasi-vivdha, or the Marriage of
TuLAS^i, but have no other authority for mentioning fuch a feftival.
TuLAs'i was a Nymph beloved by Crishna, but transformed by him
into the Parndfa, or black Ocymum, which commonly bears her name.
General Note.
If the feftivals of the old Greeks, Romans, Per/tans, Egyptians, and
Goths, could be arranged with exadlnefs in the fame form with thefe
Indian tables, there would be found, I am perfuaded, a ftriking refem-
blance among them ; and an attentive comparifon of them all might
throw great light on the religion, and, perhaps, on the hiftory, of the
primitive world.
ON
THE MUSICAL MODES
OF
THE HINDUS:
WRITTEN IN l/St, A^li SINCE MUCH ENLARGED.
By the president.
IVlUSICK belongs, as a Science, to an intereftlng part of natural phi-
lofophy, which, by mathematical dedudions from conftant phenomena,
explains the caufes and properties of found, limits the number of mixed,
or harmonick, founds to a certain feries, which perpetually recurs, and
fixes the ratio, which they bear to each other or to one leading term ;
but, confidered as an Art, it combines the founds, which philofophy
diftinguifhes, in fuch a manner as to gratify our ears, or affedl our ima-
ginations, or, by uniting both objecfts, to captivate the fancy while it
pleafes the fenfe, and, fpeaking, as it were, the language of beautiful
nature, to raife correfpondent ideas and emotions in the mind of the
hearer: it then, and then only, becomes what we call ?i.Jine art, allied very
nearly to verfe, painting, and rhetorick, but fubordinate in its fundions
to pathetick poetry, and inferior in its power to genuine eloquence.
Thus it is the province of the philofopher, to difcover the true direc-
tion aad divergence of found propagated by the fucceflive comprefFions
and
414 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
and expanfions of air, as the vibrating body advances and recedes ; to
Ihow why founds themfelves may excite a tremulous motion in particu-
lar bodies, as in the known experiment of inftruments tuned in unifon ;
to demonftrate the law, by which all the particles of air, when it un-
dulates with great quicknefs, are continually accelerated and retarded ;
to compare the number of pulfes in agitated air with that of the vibra-
tions, which caufe them ; to compute the velocities and intervals of thofe
pulfes in atmofpheres of diiFerent denfity and elafticity ; to account, as
well as he can, for the affedions, which mufick produces ; and, gene-
rally, to inveftigate the caufes of the many wonderful appearances,
which it exhibits ; but the artijl, without confidering, and even without
knowing, any of the fubiime theorems in the philofophy of found, may
attain his end by a happy feledlion of melodies and accents adapted to
pafTionate verfe, and of times conformable to regular metre ; and, above
all, by modulatioji, or the choice and variation of thofe modes, as they are
called, of which, as they are contrived and arranged by the Hindus, it is
my dcfign, and fliall be my endeavour, to give you a general notion
with all the perfpicuity, that the fubjedt will admit
Although we muft affign the firft rank, tranfcendently and beyond
all comparifon, to that powerful mufick, which may be denominated the
fifter of poetry and eloquence, yet the lower, art of pleafing the fenfe by
a fucceUion of agreeable founds, not only has merit and even charms,
but may, I perfuade myfelf, be applied on a variety of occafions to falu-
tary purpofes : whether, indeed, the fenfation of hearing be caxifed, as
many fufpcdt, by the vibrations of an elaftick ether flowing over the
auditory nerves and propelled along their folid capillaments, or whether
the fibres of our nerves, which feem indefinitely divifible, have, like the
ftrings of a lute, peculiar vibrations proportioned to their length and
degree of tenfion, we have not fufficient evidence to decide ; but we are
very furc, that the whole nervous fyftem is affeded in a fmgular manned
by
OF THE HINDUS. 415
by combinations of found, and that melody alone will often relieve the
mind, when it is opprefled by intenl'e application to bufinefs or ftudy.
The old mufician, who rather figuratively, we may fuppofe, than with
philofophical ferioufnefs, declared the foul itjelf to be nothing but harmony,
provoked the fp rightly remark of Cicero, that he drew his philojhphy
from the art, ivhich he profijj'ed ; but if, without departing from his own
art, he had merely defcribed the human frame as the nobleft and fweeteft
of mufical inftruments, endued with a natural difpoiition to refonance
and fympathy, alternately affecting and affeded by the foul, which
pervades it, his defcription might,, perhaps, have been phyfically juft,
and certainly ought not to have been haftily ridiculed : that any medical
purpofe may be fully anfwered by mufick, I dare not aifert ; but after
food, when the operations of digeftion and abforption give fo much
employment to the veffels, that a temporary ftate of mental repofe muft
be found, efpecialty in hot climates, elTential to health, it feems reafon-
able to believe, that a few agreeabJe. airs, either heard or played without
effort, muft have all the good effedls of fleep and none of its difadvan-
tages ; putting the foul i?i tune, as Milton fays, for any fubfequent
exertion ; an experiment, which has often been fuccefsfully made by
myfelf, and which any one, who pleafes, may eafily repeat. Of what. I
am going to add, I cannot give equal evidence ; but hardly know how
to difbelieve the teftimony of men, who had no fyftem of their own to
fupport, and could have no intereft in deceiving me : firft, I have been
afliired by a credible eye witnefs, that two wild antelopes ufed often
to come from their woods to the place, where a more favage beaft,
SiRA JUDDAULAH, entertained himfelf with concerts, and that they
liftened to the ftrains with an appearance of pleafure, till the nionfter,
in whofe foul there was no mufick, fliot one of them to difplay his
archery : fecondly, a learned native of this country told me, that he had
frequently feen the moft venomous and malignant fnakes leave their
holes, upon hearing tunes on a flute, which, as he fuppofcd, gave them
peculiar
4 1 6 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
peculiar delight ; and, thirdly, an intelligent Perjian, who repeated his
ftory again and again, and permitted me to write it down from his lips,
declared, he had more than once been prefent, when a celebrated lutanift,
Mirzd Mohammed, furnamed Bulbul, was playing to a large com-
pany in a grove near SMrdz, where he diftin<ftly faw the nightingales
trying to vie with the mufician, fometimes warbling on the trees, fome-
times fluttering from branch to branch, as if they wifhed to approach the
inftrument, whence the melody proceeded, and at length dropping on
the ground in a kind of extafy, from which they were foon raifed, he
affured me, by a change of the mode.
The aflonifliing effeds afcribed to mufick by the old Greeks, and, in
our days, by the Ch'tnefe, Perjians, and Indians, have probably been
exaggerated and embellilhed ; nor, if fuch effefts had been really pro-
duced, could they be imputed, I think, to the mere influence of founds
however combined or modified : it may, therefore, be fufpedted (not
that the accounts are wholly fictitious, but) that fuch wonders were per-
formed by mufick in its largefl: fenfe, as it is now defcribed by the
Hindus, that is, by the union of voices, injlruments, and aSlion ; for fuch
is the complex idea conveyed by the word Sangita, the fimple meaning
of which is no more than fymphony ; but mofl; of the Indian books on
this art confifl: accordingly of three parts, gdna, vddya, nritya, or fong,
percujjion, and dancing ; the firfl: of which comprifes the meafures of
poetry, the fecond extends to infl:rumental mufick of all forts, and the
third includes the whole compafs of theatrical reprefentation. Now it
may eafily be conceived, that fuch an alliance, with the potent auxiliaries
of diftindl articulation, graceful gefture, and well adapted fcenery, muft
have a fl:rong general effedl, and may, from particular alTociations,
operate fo forcibly on very fenfible minds, as to excite copious tears,
change the colour and countenance, heat or chill the blood, make the
heart palpitate with violence, or even compel the hearer to ftart from his
feat
OF THE HINDUS. 417
feat with the look, fpeecli, and actions of a man in a phrenfy : the efFe£l
muft be yet ftronger, if the fubjed be religious, as that of the old hidian
dramas, but great and fmall (I mean both regular plays in many ads and
Ihorter dramatick pieces on divine love) feems in general to have been.
In this way only can we attempt to account for the indubitable effeds of
the great airs and impaffioned recitative in the modern Italian dramas,
where three beautiful arts, like the Graces united in a dance, are together
exhibited in a ftate of excellence, which the ancient world could not
have furpaffed and probably could not have equalled : an heroick opera
of Met AST AS 10, fet by Pergolesi, or by fome artift of his incom-
parable fchool, and reprefented at Naples, difplays at once the perfedion
of human genius, awakens all the affedions, and captivates the ima-
gination at the fame inftant through all the fenfes.
When fuch aids, as a perfed theatre would afford, are not acceflible,
the power of mufick muft in proportion be lefs ; but it will ever be very
confiderable, if the words of the fong be fine in themfelves, and not only
well tranflated into the language of melody, with a complete union of
mufical and rhetorical accents, but clearly pronounced by an accomplifhed
finger, who feels what he fings, and fully underftood by a hearer, who
has paffions to be moved ; efpecially if the compofer has availed himfelf
in his tranjlation (for fuch may his compofition ver))- juftly be called) of
all thofe advantages, with which nature, ever fedulous to promote our
innocent gratifications, abundantly fupplies him. The firft of thofe
natural advantages is the variety oi modes, or manners, in which the Jeven
harmonick founds are perceived to move in fucceffion, as each of them
takes the lead, and confequently bears a new relation to the fix others.
Next to the phenomenon of feven founds perpetually circulating in a
geometrical progreffion, according to the length of the ftrings or the
number of their vibrations, every ear muft be fenfible, that two of the
feven intervals in the complete feries, or odave, whether we confider it as
VOL. I. 3 K placed
418 ON THE MUSrCAL MODES
placed ill a circular form, or in a right line with the firfl found repeated,
are much fhorter than the five other intervals ; and on thefe two phe-
nomena the modes of the Hindus (who feem ignorant of our complicated
harmony) are principally conftrudled. The longer intervals we fhall call
tones, and the fhorter (in compliance with cuftom) Jemitones, without
mentioning their exa£t ratios ; and it is evident, that, as the places of the
femitones admit _y^i;f» variations relative to one fundamental found, there
are as many modes, which may be called primary ; but we muft not
confound them with our modern modes, which refult from the fyftem of
accoi-ds now eftablifhed in Europe : they may rather be compared with
thofe of the Roinan Church, where fome valuable remnants of old Grecian
mufick are preferved in the fweet, majeftick, fimple, and affeding ftrains
of the Plain Song. Now, fince each of the tones may be divided, we
find tiselve femitones in the whole feries ; and, fince each femitone may
in its turn become the leader of a feries formed after the model of every
primary mode, we y^zst feven times twelve, or eighty-four, modes in all,
of which. Jeventy-feven may be named Jecondary ; and we fhall fee ac-
cordingly that the Perfian and the Hindus (at lead in their moft popular
fyftem) have exadly eighty-four modes, though diftinguifhed by dif-
ferent appellations and arranged in diffei-ent claffes : but, fince many of
them are unpleafing to the ear, others diificult in execution, and few fuf-
ficiently marked by a charader of fentiment and expreffion, which the
higher mufick always requires, the genius of the Indians has enabled
them to retain the number of modes, which nature feems to have indi-
cated, and to give each of them a charader of Its own by a happy and
beautiful contrivance. Why any one feries of founds, the ratios of
which are afcertained by obfervation and exprefTible by figures, fliould
have a peculiar efTed on the organ of hearing, and, by the auditory
nerves, on the mind, will then only be known by mortals, when they
fliall know why each of the feven colours in the rainbow, where a pro-
portion, analogous to that of mufical founds, moll wonderfully prevails,
has
OF THE HINDUS. 419
has a certain fpecifick effedt on our eyes ; why the fiiades of green and
blue, for inftance, are foft and foothing, while thofe of red and yellow
diftrefs and dazzle the fight ; but, without ftriving to account for the
phenomena, let us be fatisfied with knowing, that fome of the ?nodes have
diftind perceptible properties, and may be applied to the exprefTion of
various mental emotions ; a fad, which ought well to be confidered by
thofe performers, who would reduce them all to a dull uniformity, and
facrifice the true beauties of tlieir art to an injudicious temperament..
The ancient Greeks, among^ whom this delightful art was long in the
hands of poets, and of mathematicians, who had much lefs to do with if,
afcribe almoft all its magick to the diverfity of their Modes, but have left
us little more than the names of them, without fuch difcriminations, as
might have enabled us to compare them with our own, and apply them to
practice : their writers addreffed themfelves to Greeks, who could not but
know their national mufick ; and mofl of thofe writers were profefled
men of fcience, who thought more of calculating ratios than of invent-
ing melody ; fo that, whenever we fpeak of the foft Eolian mode, of the
tender Lydian, the voluptuous lonick, the manly Dorian, or the animating
Phrygian, we ufe mere phrafes, I believe, without clear ideas. For all
that is known concerning the mufick of Greece, let me refer thofe, who
have no inclination to read the dry works of the Greeks themfelves, to a
little tradl of the learned Wallis, which he printed as an appendix to
the Harmonicks of Ptolemy j to the Didionary of Mufick by Rous-
seau, whofe pen, formed to elucidate all the arts, had the propertv of
fprcading light before it on the darkeft fubjedts, as if he had written with
phofphorus on the fides of a cavern ; and, laftly, to the differtation of
Dr. BuRNEY, who, pafling flightly over all that is obfcure, explains with
perfpicuity whatever is explicable, and gives dignity to the character of a
modern mufician by uniting it with that of a fcholar and philofopher.
The
420 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
The unexampled felicity of our nation, who diffufe the bleflings of a
mild government, over the fineft part of India^ would enable us to attain
a perfect knowledge of the oriental mufick, which is known and pradifed
in thefe Britifi dominions not by mercenary performers only, but even
by Mufelmans and Hindus of eminent rank and learning : a native of
Cdjlidn^ lately reiident at Murfloeddbdd^ had a complete acquaintance with
the Perjian theory and practice ; and the befi: artifts in Htndujid}i would
cheerfully attend our concerts : we have an eafy accefs to approved Afiatick
treatifes on mufical compofition, and need not lament with Chardin,
that he neglected to procure at Isfahafi the explanation of a fmall tradl
on that fubje£t, which he carried to Europe: we may here examine the
■beft inftruments of A/ta, may be mafters of them, if we pleafe, or at leaft
may compare them with ours : the concurrent labours, or rather amufe-
ments, of feveral in our own body, may facilitate the attainment of correct
ideas on a fubjedl fo delightfully interefting ; and a free communication
from time to time of their refpedtive difcoveries would condud them
more furely and fpeedily, as well as more agreeably, to their defired end.
Such would be the advantages of union, or, to borrow a term from the
art before us, of harmonious accord, in all our purfuits, and above all in
that of knowledge.
On Perjian mufick, which is not the fubjed of this paper, it would
be improper to enlarge : the whole fyftem of it is explained in a cele-
brated colledion of tradls on pure and mixed mathematicks, entitled
Dnrratultdj, and compofed by a very learned man, fo generally called
Alldmi Shirazi, or the great philofopher of Shirdz, that his- proper name
is almoft forgotten ; but, as the modern Perfians had accefs, I believe, to
Ptolemy's harmonicks, their mathematical writers on mufick treat it
rather as a fcience than as an art, and feem, like the Greeks, to be more
intent on fplitting tones into quarters and eighth parts, of which they
compute the ratios to Ihow their arithmetick, than on difplaying the
principles
OF THE HINDUS. 421
principles of modulation, as it may affed the paflions. I apply the fame
obfervation to a fhort, but mafterly, trad of the famed Abu'si'na', and
fufped that it is applicable to an elegant eifay in Perfian^ called Shairifu-
lafwdt^ of which I have not had courage to read more than the preface.
It will be fufficient to fubjoin on this head, that the Perfians diftributc
their eighty-four modes, according to an idea of locality, into twelve
rooms ^ twenty-four recejfes^ and forty-eight angles or corners: in the
beautiful tale, known by the title of the Four Der-vifes, originally written
in Perjia with great purity and elegance, we find the defcription of a
concert, where four fingers, with as many different inftruments, are re-
prefented " modulating in twelve makams or per dabs ^ twenty-four yZio^^/^j,
" and forty-eight gupas, and beginning a mirthful fong of Ha'fiz, on
" vernal delight in the per dab named rdjl, or dired." All the twelve
terdahs^ with their appropriated fiobabs, are enumerated by Ami'n, a
writer and mufician of Hindujidn^ who mentions an opinion of the
learned, that o\Ay /even primary modes were in ufe before the reign of
Parvi'z, whofe mufical entertainments are magnificently defcribed by
the incomparable Niza'mi: the modes are chiefly denominated, like
thofe of the Greeks and Hindus^ from different regions or towns; as,
among iht per dahs^ we fee Hijdz, Irak, Isfahan: and, among the /bo-
Sabs, or fecondary modes, Zdbiil, Nifodpiir, and the like. In a Sanfcrit
book, which fhall foon be particularly mentioned, I find the fcale of a
mode, named Hijeja, fpecified in the following verfe :
Mans agr aha fa nydsoc'hilo hijejajiu fiydhne.
The name of this mode is not Indian ; and, if I am right in believing
it a corruption of Hijdz, which could hardly be written otherwife in the
Ndgari letters, we muft conclude, that it was imported from Perfia : we
have difcovered then a Perjian or Arabian mode with this diapafon,
D,E,F#,G#,A, B,Cii,D;
where
422 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
where the firft femitone appears between the fourth and fifth notes, and
the fccond between the fe'uenth and eighth ; as in the natural fcale Fa,
fol, la,fi, ut, re, mi, fa: but the CS, and G^^ or ga and k/ of the Indian
author, are varioufly changed, and probably the feries may be formed in
a manner not very different (though certainly there is a diverfity) from
our major mode of D. This melody muft neceflarily end with xh.t fifth
note from the tonick, and begin with the tonick itfelf ; and it would be a
grofs violation of mufical decorum in India, to fmg it at any time except
at the clofe of day : thefe rules are comprized in the verfe above cited ;
but the fpecies of o£tave is arranged according to Mr. Fowke's remarks
on the Vifid, compared with the fixed Swaragrama, or gamut, of all the
Hindu muficians.
Let us proceed to the Indian fyftem, which is minutely explained, in a
great number of Sanfcrit books, by authors, who leave arithmetick and
geometry to their aftronomers, and properly difcourfe on mufick as an art
confined to the pleafures of imagination. The Pandits of this province
unanimoufly prefer the Ddmodara to any of the popular Sangitas ; but
I have not been able to procure a good copy of it, and am perfedly fatif-
fied with the Narayan, which I received from Benares, and in which
the Damodar is frequently quoted. The Perfian book, entitled a Prefent
from India, was compofed, under the patronage of Aazem Sha'h, by
the very diligent and ingenious MiRZA Khan, and contains a minute
account of Hindu literature in all, or mofl: of, its branches : he profefles
to have extradted his elaborate chapter on mufick, with the affiftance of
Pandits from the Rdgdrnava, or Sea of Paflions, the Rdgaderpana, or
Mirror of Modes, the Sabhdvinoda, or Delight of Aflemblies, and fome
other approved treatifes in Sanfcrit. The Sangitaderpan, which he alfo
names among his authorities, has been tranflated into Perfian ; but my
experience juftifics me in pronouncing, that the Moghols have no idea of
accurate tranfiation, and give that name to a mixture of glofs and text
with
OF THE HINDUS. 423
witli a fllmfy paraphrafe of tliem both ; that they are wholly unable, yet
always pretend, to write Sanfcrit words in Arabick letters ; that a man,
who knows the Hindus only from Perfian books, does not know the
Hindus ; and that an European, who follows the muddy rivulets of
Mufclman writers on India, inftead of drinking from the pure fountain
of Hindu learning, will be in perpetual danger of mifleading himfelf and
others. From the juft feverity of this cenfure I except neither Abu'l-
FAZL, nor his brother Faiz'i, nor MoHs ani Fa'n'i, nor Mirza'kh'an
himfelf; and I fpeak of all four after an attentive perufal of their works.
A tra£l on mufick in the idiom of Mat'hura, with feveral eflays in pure
Hindujldni, lately pafled through my hands ; and I poflefs a diflertation
on the fame art in the foft dialedt of Punjab, or Fanchanada, where the
national melody has, I am told, a peculiar and ftriking charadter ; but I
am very little acquainted with thofe dialeds, and perfuade myfelf, that
nothing has been written in them, which may not be found more
copioufly and beautifully expreffed in the language, as the Hindus per-
petually call it, of the Gods, that is, of their ancient bards, philofophers,
and legiflators.
The moft valuable work, that I have feen, and perhaps the mod valu-
able that exifts, on the fubjedl of Indian mufick, is named Ragavibodha,
or The DoSlrine of Mufical Modes ; and it ought here to be mentioned
very particularly, becaufe none of the Pandits, in our provinces, nor any
of thofe from Cdf or CaJJ.vnir, to whom I have fhown it, appear to have
known that it was extant ; and it may be confidered as a treafure in the
hiftoiy of the art, which the zeal of Colonel Polier has brought into
light, and perhaps has preferved from deftrudlion. He had purchafed,
among other curiofities, a volume containing a number of feparate eflays
on mufick in profe and verfe, and in a great variety of idioms : befides
tradls in /Jrabick, Hindi, and Perfian, it included a fhort efl;iy in Latin
by Alstedius, with an intcrlineary Perfmn tranflation, in which the
paflagcs
424 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
paflages quoted from Lucretius and Virgil made a fmgular appear-
ance ; but the brighteft gem in the ftring was the Rdgavibodha, which the
Colonel permitted my Ndgari writer to tranfcribe, and the tranfcript was
diligently collated with the original by my Pandit and myfelf. It ieems
a very ancient compofition, but is lefs old unqueftionably than the Raina-
cara by Sa'rnga De'va, which is more than once mentioned in it, and
a copy of which Mr. Burrow procured in his journey to Heridwar :
the name of the author was So ma, and he appears to have been a prac-
tical mufician as well as a great fcholar and an elegant poet ; for the
whole book, without excepting the ftrains noted in letters, which fill the
fifth and lafl chapter of it, confifts of mafterly couplets in the melodious
metre called A'rya ; thtjirjl, third, axiA. fourth chapters explain the doc-
trine of mufical founds, their divifion and fucceflion, the variations of
fcales by temperament, and the enumeration of modes on a fyftem
totally different from thofe, which will prefently be mentioned ; and the
Jecond chapter contains a minute defcription of different Vifids with rules
for playing on them. This book alone would enable me, were I mailer
of my time, to compofe a treatife on the mufick of India, with afliftance,
in the practical part, from an European profeflbr and a native player on
the Vina ; but I have leifure only to prefent you with an elfay, and even
that, I am confcious, muft be very fuperficial : it may be fometimes, but,
I truft, not often, erroneous ; and I have fpared no pains to fecure myfelf
from errour.
In the literature of the Hindus all nature is animated and perfonified ;
every fine art is declared to have been revealed from heaven ; and all
knowledge, divine and human, is traced to its fource in the Vedas ;
among which the Sdmaveda was intended to htfiing, whence the reader,
or finger of it is called Udgdtri or Sdmaga : in Colonel Polier's copy
of it the ftrains are noted in figures, which it may not be impoffible to
decypher. On account of this diftindion, fay the Brdbmens, xhtfupreme
preferving
OF THE HINDUS. 425
prefer-ving poiver, la the form of Crishna, having enumerated in the
Gka various orders of beings, to the chief of which he compares himfelf,
pronounces, that " among the Vedas he ivas the Saman." From that
Fi'da was accordingly dcriv^ed the Upaveda of the Gandharbas-, or mufi-
cians in Indra's heaven ; fo that the divine art was communicated to
cur fpecies by Brahma' himfelf or by his a£iive power Sereswati',
the Goddefs of Speech ; and their mythological fon Na'red, who was
In truth an ancient lawgiver and aftronomer, invented the Vina, called
alfo Cach' hap}, or Tejludo ; a very remarkable fait, which may be added
to the other proofs of a refemblance between that Indian God, and the
Mercury of the Latians. Among infpired mortals the firft mufician is
believed to have been the fage Bherat, who was the inventor, they fay,
of Ndtacs, or dramas, reprefented with fongs and dances, and author of a
mufical fyftem, which bears his name. If we can rely on Mi'rza-
kha'n, there are four principal Matas, or fyftems, the firft of which is
afcribed to Iswara, or Osiris ; the fecond to Bherat ; the third to
Hanumat, or Pa'van, the Pan oi India, fuppofed to be the fon of
Pa VAN A, the regent of air ; and the fourth to Callina't'h, a Kifii, or
Indian philofopher, eminently fkilled in mufick, theoretical and praftical :
all four are mentioned by Soma ; and it is the tht7-d of them, which
muft be very ancient, and feems to have been extremely popular, that I
propofe to explain after a few introdud:ory remarks ; but I may here
obferve with So'ma, who exhibits a fyftem of his own, and with the
author of the Ndrdyan, who mentions a great many others, that almoft
every kingdom and province had a peculiar ftyle of- melody, and very
different names for the modes, as well as a different arrangement and
enumeration of them.
The two phenomena, which have already been ftated as the foundation
of mufical modes, could not long have efcaped the attention of the
Hindus, and their flexible language readily fupplied them with names
VOL. I. 3 L for
426 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
for the feven S'Waras, or founds, which they difpofe in the following-
order, Jl.vidja, pronounced Jharja, rtj]:>abha, gdndhdra, tnadhyama, pan-
cbamii, dhahata, niJJmda ; but the firfl of them is emphatically namedf
Ju'ara, or the found, from the important office, which it bears in the fcale ;
and hence, by taking the feven initial letters or fyllables of thofe words,
they contrived a notation for their airs, and at the fame time exhibited a
gamut, at leaft as convenient as that of Guil>o : they call \X.fwaragrd/na
or feptaca, and exprefs it in this form :
Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni,
three of which fyllables are, by a fingular concurrence exa£lly the fame,
though not all in the fame places, with three of thofe invented by David
MosTARE, as a fubftitute for the troublefome gamut ufed in his time,
and which he arranges thus :
Bo, ce, di, ga, lo, ma, ni.
As to the notation of melody, fince every Indian confonant includes by-
its nature the iTiort vowel a, five of the founds are denoted by fingle con-
fonants, and the two others have different fliort vowels taken from their
full names ; by fubftituting long vowels, the time of each note is doubled,
and other marks are ufed for a farther elongation of them ; the odlaves
above and below the mean fcale, the connecflion and acceleration of
notes, the graces of execution or manners of fingering the inftrument,
are expreffed very clearly by fmall circles and ellipfes, by little chains, by
curves, by ftraight lines horizontal or perpendicular, and by crefcents, all
in various pofitlons : the clofe of a ftrain is diftinguifhed by a lotos-
flower ; but the time and meafure are determined by the profody of the
verfe and by the comparative length of each fyllable, with which every
note or affemblage of notes refpe£tively correfponds. If I underftand the
native muficians, they have not only the chromatick, but even the fecond,
or new, enharmonick, genus ; for they unanimoufly reckon twenty-two
s'rutis, or quarters and thirds of a tone, in their odave : they do not
pretend ilMi thofe minute intervals are mathematically equal, but confider
them
OF THE HINDUS. 42/
them as equal in pradtice, and allot them to the feveral notes in the
following order ; to fa^ ma, and pay four ; to ri and dha, three ; to ga
and /?/, two ; giving very fmooth and fignificant names to each s'rutr.
Their original leak, therefore, ftands thus,
The femitones accordingly are placed as in our diatonick fcale : the
intervals between the fourth and fifth, and between the firft and fecond,
are major tones ; but that between the fifth and fixth, which is minor in
our fcale, appears to be major in theirs ; and the two fcales are made to
coincide by taking a s'ruti from pa and adding it to dha, or, in the lan-
guage of hidian artifts, by railing Servaretna to the clafs of Sdnia and
her fillers ; for every s'ruti they confider as a little nymph, and the
nymphs of Panchama, or the Jifth note, are Mdimi, Chapald, Lola, and
Servaretna, while Santa and her two fifters regularly belong to Dhai-
vata: fuch at leafl: is the fyftem of Co'hala, one of the ancient bards,
who has left a treatife on mufick.
So'ma feems to admit, that a quarter or third of a tone cannot be
feparately and diftindly heard from the Fina ; but he takes for granted,
that its effedt is very perceptible in their arrangement of modes ; and
their fixth, I imagine, is almoft univerfally diminillied by one s'ruti i
for he only mentions two modes, in which all the feven notes are un-
altered. I tried in vain to difcovcr any difference in pradtice between the
Indian fcale, and that of our own ; but, knowing my ear to be very
infufficiently exercifed, I requefted a German profeffor of mufick to
accompany with his violin a Hifidu lutanift, who fung by note fonie
popular airs on the loves of Crishna and Ra'DH^\ ; he affured me,
that the fcales were the fame; and Mr. Shore afterwards informed me,
that,
428 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
that, when the voice of a native finger was In tune with his harpfichord,
he found the Hindu feries of feven notes to afcend, like ours, by a fharp
third.
For the conftrudtion and charadler of the Vinay I mufl: refer you to the
very accurate and valuable paper of Mr. Fowke in the firfl volume of
your Tranfadlions ; and I now exhibit a fcale of its finger board, which
I received from him with the drawing of the inftrument, and on the cor-
redtnefs of which you may confidently depend : the regular Indimi gamut
anfwers, I believe pretty nearly to our major mode :
JJt, re, miyfa^foly la,fi, ut,
and, when the fame fyllables are applied to the notes, which compofe
our minor mode, they are diftinguifhed by epithets expreffing the
change, which they fuffer. It may be neceflary to add, before we come
to the Rdgas, or modes of the Hindus, that the twenty-one murcFhanas,
which Mr. Shore's native mufician confounded with the two and twenty
s'rutis, appear to be no more ih^n feven fpecies of diapafon multiplied by
three, according to the difference of pitch in the compafs of three odlaves.
Rdga which I tranflate a mode, properly fignifies a fqffion or affection
of the mind, each mode being intended, according to Bherat's defini-
tion of it, to move one or another of our fimple or mixed affedlions ;
and we learn accordingly from the Ndrdyan, that, in the days of
Crishna, there were fixteen thoufand modes, each of the Gopis at
Mat^hura chufing to fing in one of them, in order to captivate the
heart of their paftoral God. The very learned So'ma, who mixes no
mythology with his accurate fyilem of Rdgas, enumerates nine hundred
and fixty pofTible variations by the means of temperament, but feledis
fi-om them, as applicable to prafiice, only twenty-three primary modes,
from which he deduces many others ; though he allows, that, by a
diverfity of ornament and by various contrivances, the Rdgas might,
like
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OF THE HINDUS. 429
like the waves of the fea, be multiplied to an infinite nun-.ber. We
have already obferved, that eighty-four modes or manners, might naturally
be formed by giving the lead to each of our twelve founds, and varying
\wfeven different ways the pofition of the femitones ; but, fmce many
of thofe modes would be infufFerable in pradice, and fome would have
no character fufficiently marked, the Indians appear to have retained with
prediledion the number indicated by nature, and to have enforced their
fyftem by two powerful aids, the ajfociation of ideas ^ and the mutilation of
the regular fcales.
Whether it had occurred to the Hindu muficians, that the velocity or
flownefs of founds mull depend, in a certain ratio, upon the rarefaction
and condenfation of the air, fo that their motion muft be quicker in
fummer than in fpring or autumn, and much quicker than in winter, I
cannot aflure myfelf ; but am perfuaded, that their primary modes, in
the fyftem afcribed to Pa'vana, were firft arranged according to the
number of Indian feafons.
The year is diftributed by the Hindus into fix ritus^ or feafons, each
confifting of two months ; and the firft fealbn, according to the Amar-
c6JJ:a, began with Mdrgas irJJ.my near the time of the winter folftice, to
which month accordingly we fee Crishna compared in the Gitd ; but
the old lunar year began, I believe, with Afiuina, or near the autumnal
equinox, when the moon was at the full in the firft manfion : hence the
mufical feafon, which takes the lead, includes the months of Afwin and
Cdrtic, and bears the name of Sarad, correfponding with part of our
autumn ; the next in order are Hemanta and Sis'ira, derived from
words, which fignifyy/'o/? and deiv ; then come Vafanta, or fpring, called
alfo Surabhi or fragrant, and Pujhpafamaya, or the flower time ; Grip^ma,
or heat ; and VerJI^a, or the feafon of rain. By appropriating a different
mode to each of the different feafons, the artifts of India connedted
certain
430 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
-certaui flrains with certain ideas, and were able to recal the memory of
autumnal merriment at the clofe of the harveft, or of feparation and
melancholy (very different from our ideas at Calcutta) during the cold
months ; of reviving hilarity on the appearance of bloflbms, and complete
vernal delight in the month of Madhii or honey ; of languor during
the dry heats, and of refrcfhment by the firft rains, which caufe in this
climate a fecond fpring. Yet farther: fince the lunar year, by which
feftivals and fuperftitious duties are conftantly regulated, proceeds con-
currently with the folar year, to which the feafons are neceffarily re-
ferred, devotion comes alfo to the aid of mufick, and all the powers
of nature^ which are allegorically Avorfliipped as gods and goddeffes
on their feveral holidays, contribute to the influence of fong on
minds naturally fufceptible of religious emotions. Hence it was, I
imagine, that Pa'van, or the inventor of his mufical fyflem, reduced
the number of original modes irova. /even to Jix; but even this was not
enough for his purpofe ; and he had recourfe to the. Jive principal divi-
fions of the day, which are the ?norning^ noon, and evening, called tri-
fandhyj, with the two intervals between them, or \\\t forenoon and after-r
noon: by adding two divifions, or intervals, of the night, and by leaving
one fpecies of melody without any fuch refi:rid;ion, So'ma reckons eight
variations in refpeQ; of time; and the fyflem of Pa'van retains that
number alfo in the fecond order of derivative modes. Every branch of
knowledge in this country has been embellifhed by poetical fables j and
the inventive talents of the Greeks never fuggefled a more charming alle-
gory than the lovely families of the fix Rdgas, named, in the order of
feafons above exhibited, Bhairava, Ma'lava, Sri'ra'ga, Hindola
or Vasanta, Di'paca, and Me'gha ; each of whom is a Genius, or
Demigod, wedded to five Rdginis, or Nymphs, and father of eight little
Genii, called his Futras, or Sons: the fancy of Shakspeare and the
pencil of Alb and might have been finely employed in giving fpeech
and form to this alfemblage of new aerial beings, who people the fairy-
land
OF THE HINDUS. 431
land of Indian imagination ; nor have the Hindu poets and painters lofl:
the advantages, with which fo beautiful a fubjed prefented them. A
whole chapter of the Ndrdyan contains defcriptions of the Rdgas and
their conforts, extracted chiefly from the Ddmo'dar, the Caldncura, the
Retnamdld, the Chandricd, and a metrical tradt on mufick afcribed to the
God Na'red himfelf, from which, as among fo many beauties a parti-
cular fele£tion would be very perplexing, I prefent you with the firft
that occurs, and have no doubt, that you will think the Sanfcrit language
equal to Italian in foftnefs and elegance;
Lila viharena vanantarale,
Chinvan prasunani vadhu fahayah^
Vilafi vesodita divya murtih
Srirdga eiha prat'hitah prit'hivyam.
" The demigod Sri'ra'ga, famed over all this earth, fweetly fports
" with his nymphs, gathering frefh blofToms in the bofom of yon
" grove ; and his divine lineaments are diftinguilhed through his grace-
" ful vefture."
Thefe and fimilar images, but wonderfully diverfified, are exprefled in
a variety of meafures, and reprefented by delicate pencils in the Rdga-
mdlas^ which all of us have examined, and among which the moft beau-
tiful are in the pofTefTion of Mr. R. Johnson and Mr. Hay. A noble
work might be compofed by any mufician and fcholar, who enjoyed
leifure and difregarded expence, if he would exhibit a perfedl fyftem ot
Indian mufick from Sanfcrit authorities, with the old melodies of So jia
applied to the fongs of Jayade'va, embellifhed with defcriptions of all
the modes accurately tranflated, and with Mr. Hay's Ragamdid deli-
neated and engraved by the fcholars of Cipriani and Bartolozzk
Let
432 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
Let us proceed to the fecond artifice of the Hindu muficlans, in giving
their modes a diflindl charader and a very agreeable diverfity of expref-
fion. A curious pafTage from Plutarch's treatife on Muiick is tranf-
lated and explained by Dr. Burney, and ftands as the text of the moft
intercfting chapter in his diflertation : fnice I cannot procure the original,
I exhibit a paraphrafe of his tranflation, on the corredtnefs of which I
can rely ; but I have avoided, as much as poflible, the technical words of
the Greeks^ which it might be necefl'ary to explain at fome length. " We
" arc informed, fays Plutarch, by Aristoxenus, that muficians
" afcribe to Olympus of MyJIa the invention of enharmonick melody,
" and conjedure, that, when he was playing diatonically on his flute,
" and frequently pafled from the higheft of four founds to the loweft
" but one, or converfely, fkipping over the fecond in defcent, or the
" third in afcent, of that feries, he perceived a fmgular beauty of expref-
" fion, which induced him to difpofe the whole feries of feven or eight
" founds by fimilar fkips, and to frame by the fame analogy his Dorian
" mode, omitting every found peculiar to the diatonick and chromatick
*' melodies then in ufe, but without adding any that have fmce been
" made eflential to the new enharmonick : in this genus, they fay, he
" compofed the Nome, or ftrain, called Spoiidean^ becaufe it was ufed in
" temples at the time of religious libations. Thofe, it feems, were the
" fi'^ft enharmonick melodies ; and are ftill retained by fome, who play
" on the flute in the antique ft:yle without any divifion of a femitone ;
" for it was after the age of Olympus, that the quarter of a tone was
" admitted into the Lydian and Phrygian modes ; and it was he, there-
" fore, who, by introducing an exquifite melody before unknown in
" Greece^ became the author and parent of the mofl beautiful and affedt-
" ing mufick."
This method then of adding to the charader and effed of a mode by
diminifliing the number of its primitive founds, was introduced by a
Greek
OF THE HINDUS. 433
Greek of the lower AJia^ who flourifhed, according to the learned and
accurate writer of the Travels of Anacharsis, about the middle of the
thirteenth century before Christ; but it mull have been older flill
among the Hindus, if the fyftem, to which I now return, was adtually
invented in the age of R am A.
Since it appears from the Narayan, that thirty-fix modes are in general
ufe, and the reft very rarely applied to pradice, I fliall exhibit only the
fcales of the fix Rdgas and thirty Rdginis^ according to So'ma, the
authors quoted in the Ndrdyatiy and the books explained by Pandits to
Mirza'kha'n ; on whofe credit I muft rely for that of Cacubhd, which
I cannot find in my Sanfcrit treatifes on mufick : had I depended on
him for information of greater confequence, he would have led me into
a very ferious miftake ; for he afferts, what I now find erroneous, that
the graha is the firft note of every mode, with which every fong, that is
compofed in it, muft invariably begin and end. Three diftinguilhed
founds in each mode are called graha, nydfa, ansa, and the writer of the
Ndrdyan defines them in the two following couplets :
Graha fwarah fa ityufto yo gitadau famarpitah,
Nydfa fwaraftu fa prodlo yo gitadi famapticah :
Y6 vyadlivyanjaco gane, yafya ferve' nugaminah,
Yafya fervatra bahulyam vady ans'6 pi nripotamah.
*' The note, called graha, is placed at the beginning, and that named nydfa^
*' at the end, of a fong : that note, which difplays the peculiar melody,
" and to which all the others are fuhordinate, that, which is always of
" the greateft ufe, is like a fovereign, though a mere ans'a, or portion."
" By the word vddi, fays the commentator, he means the note, which
VOL. I. 3 m " announces
434
ON THE MUSICAL MODES
" announces and afcertains the Raga^ and which may be confidered as
" the parent and origin of the graha and nydfa" this clearly fhows, I
think, that the ansa muft be the tonick; and we fhall find, that the
two other notes are generally its third and fifth, or the mediant and the
dominant. In the poem entitled Mdgha there is a mufical fimile, which
may illuftrate and confirm our idea:
Analpatwat pradhanatwad ans'afyevetarafwarah,
Vijigifhornripatayah prayanti pericharatam.
•' From the greatnefs, from the tranfcendent qualities, of that Hero
" eager for conqueft, other kings march in fubordination to him, as
" other notes are fubordinate to the ayis'a^
If the ans'a be the tonick, or modal note, of the Hindus, we may con-
fidently exhibit the fcales of the Indian modes, according to So'MA, de-
noting by an afterifk the omiffion of a note.
Bhairava:
'dha.
ni.
fa.
ri.
^^.
ma.
pa.
Vardti:
fa.
ri,
g^^
fna.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Medhyamddi :
ma.
pa.
*
ni.
fa.
*
ga.
Bhairavi :
fa,
ri,
ga*
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Saindhaiii :
fa.
ri,
*
ma.
pa.
dha.
*
•
Bengali :
-A
ri,
g^y
ma,
pa.
dha,
ni.
Ma'lava :
'ni.
fa.
ri,
g^>
ma.
pa.
dha.
T6'di:
g^.
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
fa.
ri.
Gaudi :
ni.
fa.
ri.
*
ma.
pa.
*
•
Gonddcri :
fa,
ri,
g^>
ma,
pa.
*
ni.
Sufhdvati :
not in
So'ma.
Cacubha :
•
not in
Soma.
Srira'ga
OF THE HINDUS.
435
Srira'ga :
'ni.
fa,
rh
g«^
ma,
pa,
dha.
Mdlavas'ri :
fa,
*
g<^>
ma.
pa.
*
>
ni.
Mdravt :
g^^
ma,
pa,
*
>
ni.
fa.
*
4
Dhanydsi :
fa,
*
g^>
ma.
pa.
*
ni.
Vafanfi :
fa.
ri,
g^>
ma.
»
dha,
ni.
Asdveri :
_ma,
pa,
dha,
ni.
fa,
ri.
g^-
Hindo'la :
'ma,
*
>
dha,
ni.
fa,
*
g^-
Rdmacri :
fa.
ri,
ga.
ma.
pa,
dha.
ni.
Des'dcfn :
g^.
ma,
pa.
dha.
*
»
fa,
ri.
Lelitd :
fa,
n,
g^^
ma.
*
>
dha.
ni.
V^ldvali :
dha^
?2/,
fa,
*
»
g^.
ma.
*
•
Fatamanjari :
^
not in
So'ma.
D'iPACA :
not in
So'ma.
Des'i:
'li,
*
ma.
pa.
dha,
ni.
fa.
Cdmbo'd'i :
fa.
ri.
g^.
ma.
pa.
dha.
*
•
Netta :
fa.
rt.
g^^
ma.
pa,
dha.
ni.
Ceddri :
ni.
fa.
ri.
g^.
ma.
pa.
dha.
Carndii :
^ni.
fa.
*
»
g^^
ma.
pa.
*
•
Me'gha:
not in
So'ma.
Taccd :
^fa,
ri.
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Melldrt :
dha^
*
fa,
ri.
*
>
ma,
pa,
Gurjarl : *
",
g^^
ma.
*
dha.
ni.
fa.
Bhupdlt :
g(f.
*
pa.
dha.
*
fa.
ri.
Dejacri :
.fa.
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
It is impoflible, that I fhould have erred much, if at all, in the pre-
ceding table, becaufe the regularity of the Sanfcrit metre has in general
enabled me to corre<S the manufcript ; but I have fome doubt as to Ve-
Idvali, of which pa is declared to be the ans'a or tonick, though it is laid
in the fame line, that both pa and ri may be omitted : I, therefore, have
fuppofed dha to be the true reading, both Mirzakhan and the Ndrdyan
exhibiting that note as the leader of the mode. The notes printed in
Italick
436
ON THE MUSICAL MODES
Italick letters are varioufly changed by temperament or by fhakes and
other graces ; but, even if I were able to give you in v\rords a diftindl
notion of thofe changes, the account of each mode w^ould be infufferably
tedious, and fcarce intelligible without the afliftance of a mafterly per-
former on the Indian lyre. According to the beft authorities adduced
in the Ndrdyan^ the thirty-fix modes are, in fome provinces, arranged in
thefe forms:
Bhairava:
'dha.
ni,
fa.
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa.
Vardti:
fa.
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha,
ni.
Medhyamddi :
ni,
fa,
*
ga.
ma.
pa,
dha.
Bhairavi :
>,
*
ga,
ma,
*
dha.
ni.
Saindhavi :
pa.
dha.
ni,
fa.
ri.
ga.
ma.
Bengali :
Ja,
ri.
g^y
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Ma'lava :
'ma,
-*
dha.
ni;
fa.
ri.
ga-
To'dz:
ma,
pa.
dha.
ni.
fa.
ri.
ga.
Gaudt :
ni.
fa.
ri,
ga.
ma.
*
dha.
<
Gondacri -,
fa,
*
ga,
ma.
pa.
*
»
ni.'
Suf/jdvat} :
dha.
«/,
>,
ri.
ga.
ma,
*
•
Caciibhd :
^
not in
the Ndrdyan.
Sri'ra'ga.-
'fa,
ri.
ga.
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Mdlavafn :
fa.
ri.
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Mdravi :
Dhanydsi :
fa,
*
ga.
ma,
pa.
dha,
ni.
fa.
ri,
ga.
fna.
pa,
dha,
ni.
Vajanti :
fa,
ri,
ga.
ma,
pa.
dha,
ni.
A'sdveri :
-ri,
ga.
ma.
pa.
dha,
ni.
fa.
Hindo'la:
ffa.
*
ga.
ma,
*
dha.
ni.
Rdmacri:
A
^/,
ga.
ma.
pa,
dha,
ni.
DhdcJlSi:
ga,
ma,
pa,
dha,
ni.
fa,
*
»
Lelitd:
>,
*
ga.
ma,
pa.
*
ni.
Fe/dva/l :
dha,
ni.
A
ri,
ga.
ma,
pa.
Paiamanjari :
-pa,
dha.
ni,
fa,
ri.
Z''^
ma.
Dl'PACA
OF THE
HINDUS.
I
Di'paca:
omitted.
Desi :
'ni,
fa,
ri, ga, ma.
pa.
dha.
Cdmbodt :
fa,
ri.
ga, ma, pa.
dha.
ni.
Netta:
fa.
ri.
ga, ma, pa.
dha,
ni.
Cedar t :
omitted.
Carndd :
^ni,
fa.
ri, ga, ma.
pa.
dha.
Me'gha:
'dha,
ni,
fa, ri, ga.
ma.
pa.
Taccd :
(a mixed mode
•)
Mellari:
dha,
ni.
*, ri, ga.
ma.
*
•
Gurjari :
omitted in the Nardyan.
Bhupdlt :
fa.
ri.
ga, *, pa.
dha,
*
•
Defacri :
.ni,
fa,
*, ga, ma,
pa.
*
•
437
Among the fcales juft enumerated we may fafely fix on that of Sri-
ra'ga for our own major mode, fince its form and character are thus
defcribed in a Sanfcrit couplet ;
Jatinyafagrahagramans'efhu fhadjo Ipapanchamah,
Sringaravirayorjneyah Srirdgo gitacovidaih.
" Muficians know Srirdga to have^^ for its principal note and the firft
*' of its fcale, with pa diminillied, and to be ufed for exprefling heroick
" love and valour." Now the diminution oi pa by one s'ruti gives us
the modern European fcale,
ut, re, mi, fa^ fol, la, Ji, ut.
with a minor tone, or, as the Indians would exprefs it, with three s'rutis^
between the fifth and fixth notes.
On the formulas exhibited by Mi'rzakha'n I have lefs reliance ;
but, fince he profefles to give them from Sanfcrit authorities, it feemed
proper to tranfcribe them :
Bhairava :
38 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
Bhairava :
-dha,
ni.
fa.
*
ga,
ma.
*
•
Vardti :
fa.
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa,
dha.
ni.
Medhyamadi : ma,
pa.
dha.
ni,
fa.
ri.
ga.
Bbairavl :
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
fa,
ri,
ga.
Saindhavi :
fa,
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa,
dha.
ni.
Bengdh :
Lfa,
ri,
ga,
ma,
pa.
dha.
ni.
Ma'lava :
rfa,
ri,
ga,
ma,
pa,
dha.
ni.
Todi :
fa,
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Gaudi :
fa,
*
»
ga.
ma.
*
dha,
ni.
Gondacri :
ni.
fa,
*
ga,
ma,
pa,
*
•
Sujl'hdvati:
dha,
ni.
fa.
ri.
ga,
ma.
*
•
Cacubhd :
-dha.
ni,
fa.
ri.
ga,
ma.
pa.
Sri'ra'ga :
rfa,
ri,
ga.
ma.
pa,
dha.
ni.
Mdlavafri :
fa.
ri,
ga.
ma,
pa.
dha,
ni.
Mdravt :
fa.
*
pa.
ga,
ma.
dha,
ni.
Dhafiydsi :
fa,
pa.
dha,
ni,
ri,
ga,
*
•
Vafanti :
fa.
ri.
ga.
ma,
pa.
dha.
ni.
A'fdvert : '
-dha.
ni,
fa.
*
*
»
ma.
pa.
HiNDOLA :
rfa,
*
ga,
ma.
pa.
*
ni.
Rdmacri :
fa.
>
ga,
ma.
pa.
*
ni.
Des'dcJJ.n :
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
fa,
*
•
Lelitd :
dha,
ni,
fa,
*
ga.
ma.
*
•
Velavari :
dha,
ni.
fa,
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa.
Patamanjari :
-pa.
dha.
ni.
fa,
ri,
ga.
ma.
DiPACA :
-fa.
ri,
ga,
ma,
pa.
dha.
ni.
Dhi :
ri,
ga,
ma.
*
dha,
ni.
fa.
Cambodi :
Netta :
dha,
ni.
fa,
ri,
ga.
ma.
pa.
fa,
ni.
dha,
pa,
ma.
ga.
ri.
Cedari :
ni.
fa.
*
ga.
ma,
pa,
*
•
Carnatl :
■ ni.
fa.
ri,
ga,
ma,
pa.
dha.
Megha
OF THE HINDUS.
Megha:
rdha,
ni.
fa,
ri,
ga,
*
*
•
Tacca :
fa,
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
Mellari :
dha.
ni,
>
ri.
ga,
ma.
*
•
Gurjari :
ri,
ga,
ma.
pa.
dha.
ni.
fa.
Bhupali:
fa,
ga,
ma.
dha.
ni.
pa,
ri.
Defacri :
Lfa,
ri,
ga,
ma,
pa.
dha.
ni.
439
It may reafonably be fufpefted, that the Moghol writer could not have
fhown the diftindion, which muft neceflarily have been made, between
the different modes, to which he afligns the fame formula ; and, as to his
inverfions of the notes in fome of the Rdginis^ I can only fay, that no
fuch changes appear in the Sanfcrit books, which I have infpedted. I
leave our fcholars and muficians to find, among the fcales here exhibited,
the Dorian mode of Olympus ; but it cannot efcape notice, that the
Chinefe fcale C, D, E, *, G, A, *, correfponds very nearly with ga,
may fay *, ni, fa, *, or the Maravz of So'ma : we have long known in
Bengal, from the information of a Scotch gentleman fkilled in mufick,
that the wild, but charming melodies of the ancient highlanders were
formed by a fimilar mutilation of the natural fcale. By fuch muti-
lations, and by various alterations of the notes in tuning the Vina^
the number of modes might be augmented indefinitely ; and Calli-
na't'ha, admits ninety into his fyftem, allowing y/x nymphs, inftead
of Jive, to each of his mufical deities : for Dipaca, which is generally
confidered as a loft mode (though Mi'rza'khan exhibits the notes of
it), he fubftitutes Panchama ; for Hindola, he gives us Vafanta, or the
Spring; and for Mdlava, Natandrdyan or Crishna the Dancer; all
with fcales rather different from thofe of Pa'van. The fyftem of Is-
wara, which may have had fome affinity with the old Egyptian mufick
invented or improved by Osiris, nearly refembles that of Hanumat,
but the names and fcales are a little varied : in all the fyftems, the names
of the modes are fignificant, and fome of them as fanciful as thofe of the
fairies
440 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
fairies in the Midlummer Night's Dream. Forty-eight new modes were
added by Bherat, who marries a nymph, thence called hharya, to
each Piitra, or Son, of a Rdga; thus admitting, in his mufical fchool,
an hundred and thirty-tivo manners of arranging the feries of notes.
Had the Indian empire continued in full energy for the lafl: two thou-
fand years, religion would, no doubt, have given permanence to fyftems
of mufick invented, as the Hindus believe, by their Gods, and adapted to
myftical poetry : but fuch have been the revolutions of their government
fince the time of Alexander, that, although the Sanfcrit books have
preferved the theoiy of their mufical compofition, the praGice of it
feems almoft wholly loft (as all the Pandits and Rajas confefs) in Gaur
and Magarha, or the provinces of Bengal and Behar. When I firft read
the fongs of Jayade'va, who has prefixed to each of them the name of
the mode, in which it was anciently fung, I had hopes of procuring the
original mufick ; but the Pandits of the Ibuth referred me to thofe of the
weft, and the Brdhmens of the weft would have fent me to thofe of the
north ; while they, I mean thofe of Nepal and Cajhmir, declared that
they had no ancient mufick, but imagined, that the notes to the Gitago-
vinda muft exift, if any wher-e, in one of the fouthern provinces, where
the Poet was born : from all this I col!e£l, that the art, which flouriflied
in India many centuries ago, has faded for want of due culture, though
fome fcanty remnants of it may, perhaps, be preferved in the paftoral
roundelays of Mat'hura on the loves and fports of the Indian Apollo.
"We muft not, therefore, be furprifed, if modern performers on the Vina
have little or no modulation, or change of mode, to which paffionate
mufick owes nearly all its enchantment ; but that the old muficians of
India, having fixed on a leading mode to exprefs the general charader of
the fong, which they were tranjlating into the mufical language, varied
that mode, by certain rules, according to the variation of fentiment or
pafTion in the poetical phrafes, and always returned to it at the clofe of
the
OF THE HINDUS. 441
the air, many reafons induce me to believe ; though I cannot but admit,
that their modulation muft have been gi'eatly confined by the refi;ri(Stion
of certain modes to certain feafons and hours, unlefs thofe reftridlions
belonged merely to the principal mode. The fcale of the Vina^ we find,
comprized both our European modes, and, if fome of the notes can be
raifed a femltone by a ftronger preflure on the frets, a delicate and expe-
rienced finger might produce the effedt of minute enharmonick intervals 4
the conftrudtion of the inllrument, therefore, feems to favour my conjec-
ture ; and an excellent judge of the fubjedt informs us, that, ^' the open
*' wires are from time to time ftruck in a manner, that prepares the ear
" for a change of modulation, to which the uncommonly full and fine
** tones of thofe notes greatly contribute." We may add, that the Hindu
poets never fail to change the metre, which is their mode^ according to
the change of fubjedl or fentiment in the fame piece ; and I could pro-
duce inftances of poetical modulation (if fuch a phrafe may be ufed) at
leaft equal to the mofl: afFed:ing modulations of our greateft compofers :
now the mufician muft naturally have emulated the poet, as every tranf-
lator endeavours to refemble his original ; and, fince each of the Indian
modes is appropriated to a certain affedion of the mind, it is hardly pof.
fible, that, where the paffion is varied, a fkilful mufician could avoid a
I'ariation of the mode. The rules for modulation feem to be contained
in the chapters on mixed modes, for an intermixture of Melldri with To'dl
and Saindhavi means, I fuppofe, a tranfition, however fhort, from one to
another : but the queftion muft remain undecided, unlefs we can find in
the Sangitas a clearer account of modulation, than I am able to produce,
or unlefs we can procure a copy of the Gitagdvinda with the mufick, to
which it was fet, before the time of Calidas, in fome notation, that
may be eafily decyphered. It is obvious, that I have not been fpeaking
of a modulation regulated by harmony, with which the Hindus, I believe,
were unacquainted ; though, like the Greeks, they diftinguifli the confo-
nant and dijfonant founds : I mean only fuch a tranfition from one feries
VOL. I. 3 N of
442 ON THE MUSICAL MODES
of notes to another, as we fee defcribed by the Greek muficlans, who
were ignorant of harmony in the modern fenfe of the word, and, per-
haps, if they had known it ever fo perfedly, would have applied it folely
to the fupport of melody, which alone fpeaks the Language of paflion
and fentiment.
It would give me pleafure to clofe this eflay with feveral fpecimens of
old Indian airs from the fifth chapter of So'ma; but I have leifure only
to prefent you with one of them in our own charadters accompanied
with the original notes : I feledted the mode of Vafanti^ becaufe it was
adapted by Jayade'va himfelf to the moft beautiful of his odes, and be-
caufe the number of notes in So'ma compared with that of the fyllables
in the Sanfcrit ftanza, may lead us to guefs, that the ftrain itfelf was ap-
plied by the mufician to the very words of the poet. The words are :
Lalita lavanga lata perisilana comala malaya famire,
Madhucara nicara carambita cocila cujita cunja entire
Viharati heririha farafa vafante
Nrityati yuvatijanena faman fac'hi virahi janafya durante.
" While the foft gale of Malaya wafts perfume from the beautiful
' clove-plant, and the recefs of each flowery arbour fweetly refounds
' with the ftrains of the Cocila mingled with the murmurs of the honey-
' making fwarms, Heri dances, O lovely friend, with a company of
' damfels in this vernal feafon ; a feafon full of delights, but painful to
' feparated lovers."
I have noted So'Ma's air in the major mode of A, or>, which, from
its gaiety and brilliancy, well exprefies the general hilarity of the fong ;
hut the fentiment of tender pain, even in a feafon of delights, from the
remembrance of pleafures no longer attainable, would require in our
mufick
OF THE HINDUS.
443
mufick a change to the minor mode ; and the air might be difpofed in
the form of a rondeau ending with the fecond line, or even with the
third, where the fenfe is equally full, if it fhould be thought proper to
exprefs by another modulation that imitative melody, which the poet has
manifeftly attempted : the meafure is very rapid, and the air fhould be
gay, or even quick, in exaft proportion to it.
AN OLD INDIAN AIR.
I^uiirp^
^^
la li ta la van ga la ta pe ri fi la na co mala ma la ya fa mi re
^F^^^^i^rf I rrr r^r i J^=^
madhucara nicaraca ram bi ta cocila cujita cunja cu ti re
gJETLgi^g^^WTeng
vi ha ra ti he ri ri ha fa ra fa va fante nrit ya ti yu va tija nenafa manfachi
y*-r^-^^^M=^a
virahija nafyadu ran te.
o o
3D:
la ri ga ma pa dha ni fa
The preceding is a drain in the mode of Hindo'la, beginning and
ending with the fifth note fa, but wanting pa, and ri, or the fecond and
fixth : I could eafily have found words for it in the Gitagovinda, but the
united charms of poetry and mufick would lead me too far ; and I muft
now with reluctance bid farewel to a fubjed, which I defpair of having
leifure to refume.
ON
THE MYSTICAL POETRY
OF
THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS.
By The PRESIDENT.
J\ FIGURATIVE mode of exprelTing the fervour of devotion, or the
ardent love of created fpirits tovv^ards their beneficent Creator, has pre-
vailed from time immemorial in ^Jia ; particularly among the Perjian
theifts, both ancient Hufiangis and modern Sufis^ v^ho feem to have bor-
rov^ed it from the Indian philofophers of the Veddnta fchool ; and their
dodrines are alfo believed to be the fource of that fublime, but poetical,
theology, v\rhich glows and fparkles in the w^ritings of the old Acade-
mic ks. " Plato travelled into Italy and Egypt, fays Claude Fleury,
" to learn the Theology of the Pagans at its fountain head :" its true
fountain, however, was neither in Italy nor in Egypt (though confider-
able ftreams of it had been conducted thither by Pythagoras and by
the family of Misra), but in Perfia or India, which the founder of the
Italick fedt had vifited with a fimilar defign. What the Grecian travellers
learned among the fages of the eaft, may perhaps be fully explained, at a
feafon of leifure, in another differtation ; but we confine this effay to a
fingular fpecies of poetry, which confifts almoft wholly of a myftical
religious allegory, though it feems on a tranfient view to contain only the
fentiments of a wild and voluptuous libertinifin : now, admitting the
danger
41(3 Ox\ THE MYSTICAL POETRY
danger of a poetical ftyle, in which the limits between vice and enthufiafm
are fo minute as to be hardly diftinguiihable, we muft beware of cenfur-
ing it feverely, and muft allow it to be natural, though a warm imagination
may carry it to a culpable exc^fs ; for an ardently grateful piety is congenial
to the undepraved nature of man, whofe mind, finking under the magnitude
ofthefubjed, and ftruggling to exprefs its emotions, has recourfe to meta-
phors and allegories, which it fometimes extends beyond the bounds of
cool reafon, and often to the brink of abfurdity. Barrow, who would
have been the fublimeft mathematician, if his religious turn of mind had
not made him the deepeft theologian of his age, defcribes Love as " an
" affedtion or inclination of the foul toward an objed, proceeding from
*•' an apprehenfion and efteem of fome excellence or convenience in it,
" as its beauty^ worth, or utility, and producing, if it be abfent, a pro-
'* portionable defire, and confequently an endeavour, to obtain fuch a
" property in it, fuch pofleflion of it, fuch an approximation to it, or union
" loith it, as the thing is capable of; with a regret and difpleafure in
" failing to obtain it, or in the want and lofs of it ; begetting likewife a
" complacence, fatisfadtion, and delight in its prefence, pofTeffion, or en-
" joyment, which is moreover attended with a good will toward it, fuit-
" able to its nature ; that is, with a defire, that it fhould arrive at, or
" continue in, its beft ftate ; with a delight to perceive it thrive and
*' flourifh ; with a difpleafure to fee it fufFer or decay : with a confe-
•' quent endeavour to advance it in all good and preferve it from all
" evil." Agreeably to this defcription, which confifts of two parts, and
was defigned to comprize the tender love of the Creator towards created
fpirits, the great philofopher burfts forth in another place, with his ufual
animation and command of language, into the following panegyrick on
the pious love of human fouls toward the Author of their happinefs :
" Love is the fweeteft and moft deledable of all paffions ; and, when by
" the condud of wifdom it is direded in a rational way toward a
*' worthy, congruous, and attainable objed, it cannot otherwife than fill
" the
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS. 447
" the heart with ravifhing delight : fuch, in all refpeds fuperlatively
*' fuch, is God ; who, infinitely beyond all other things, deferveth our
*' affection, as moft perfe(Slly amiable and defirable ; as having obliged
" us by innumerable and ineftimable benefits ; all the good, that we have
" ever enjoyed, or can ever expert, being derived from his pure bounty ;
" all things in the world, in competition with him being mean and ugly ;
" all things, without him, vain, unprofitable, and hurtful to us. He is
" the moft proper object of our love j for we chiefly were framed, and
" it is the prime law of our nature, to love him ; our foul ^ from its origi-
" nal inJlinSl, "oergeth toward him as its centre, and can have no reft, till
" // be fixed on him : he alone can fatisfy the vaft capacity of our minds,
" and fill our boundlefs defires. He, of all lovely things, moft certainly
" and eafily may be attained; for, whereas commonly men are crofled in
" their afFedlion, and their love is embittered from their affedling things
" imaginary,, which they cannot reach, or coy things, which difdain and
" rejedl them, it is with God quite otherwife : He is moft ready to im-
*' part himfelf ; he moft earneftly defireth and wooeth our love ; he is
" not only moft willing to correfpond in affedion, but even doth pre-
" vent us therein : He doth cherijh and aicoiirage our love byfiveeteji in-
" fuences and mof confoling embraces % by kindeft expreffions of favour, by
" moft beneficial returns ; and, whereas all other objedls do in the en-
" joyment much fail our expedlation, he doth ever far exceed it. Where-
" fore in all affedlionate motions of our hearts toward GoD ; in defring
" him, or feeking his favour and friendfhip; \xi embracing him, or fetting
" our efteem, our good will, our confidence on him ; in enjoying him by
" devotional meditations and addrefles to him ; in a refled:ive fenle of
" our intereft and propriety in hiiivj in that myflerious union, offpirif,
" whereby we do clofely adhere to, and are, as it were, inferted in him ; in
" a hearty complacence in his benignity, a grateful fenfe of his kind-
" nefs, and a zealous defire of yielding fome requital for it, we cannot
" but feel very pleafant tranfports i indeed, that celeftial flame, kimlled
448 ON THE MYSTICAL POETRY
" iA' dti'i' Kearts by the fpirit of love, cannot be void of warmth ; we can-
*' not fix our eyes upon infinite beauty ^.v^t cannot tafte infinite fweet-
" nefs, we cannot cleave to infinite felicity, without alfo pei-petually re-
" joicing in the firft daughter of Love to God, Charity toward men ;
" which, in completion and careful difpofition, doth much refemble her
" mother ; for flie doth rid us from all thofe gloomy, keen, turbulent
*' Imaginations and paffions, which cloud our mind, which fret our heart,
" which difcompofe the frame of our foul ; from burning anger, from ftorm-
*' ing contention, from gnawing envy, from rankling fpite, from racking
*' fufpicion, from diftrafting ambition and avarice; and confequently doth
" fettle our mind in an even temper, in a fedate humour, in an harmonious
" order, in that plea/ant Jiate oftraiiquillity^ whtch naturally doth refultfrom
*' the "voidance of irregular pajjionsy Now this pafl^age from Barrow
(which borders, I admit, on quietifm and enthufiaftic devotion) differs
only from the myfl:ical theology of the Sufi's and Togis, as the flowers
and fruits of Europe differ in fcent and flavour from thofe of -^fia, or as
European differs from Afiatick eloquence : the fame ftrain, in poetical
m'eafure, would rife up to the odes of Spenser on Divine Love and
Beauty^ and, in a higher key with richer embellifliments, to the fongs of
Hafiz and Jayade'va, the raptures of the Mafnav), and the myflieries
of the Bhdgavat.
Before we come to the Perfians and Indians^ let me produce another
fpecimen of European theology, colledled from a late excellent work of
the illuftrious M. Necker. " "Were men animated, fays he, with
" fublime thoughts, did they refpedt the intelle£tual power, with which
" they are adorned, and take an interefl; in the dignity of their nature,
" they would embrace with tranfport that fenfe of religion, which en-
" nobles their faculties, keeps their minds in full fl:rength, and unites
" them in idea with him, whofe immenfity overwhelms them with
" aftonifliment: confidering themfehes as an emanation from that infinite
*' Being,
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS. 4,1c)
" Beings the fource and caufe of all things, they would then difdahi to
" he mifled by a 'gloomy and falfe philofophy, and would cherifh the
" Idea of a GoD, who created^ who regenerates^ who prefer-ues this uni-
" verfe by invariable laws, and by a continued chain of fimilar caufes
" producing fimilar effeds ; who pervades all nature with his divine
*' fpirit, as an univerfal foul, which moves, directs, and reftrains the
♦* wonderful fabrick of this world. The blifsful idea of a God fweet-
" ens every moment of our time, and embellifhes before us the path
" of life ; unites us delightfully to all the beauties of nature, and
" afTociates us with every thing that lives or moves. Yes ; the whifper
*' of the gales, the murmur of waters, the peaceful agitation of trees
♦' and flirubs, would concur to engage our minds and (iffeSl our fouls
" with tendernefs^ if our thoughts were elevated to one univerfal caufe^ if
** we recognized on all fides the work of Him^ whom we love; if we
" marked the traces of his auguft fteps and benignant intentions, if wc
** believed ourfelves adually prefent at the difplay of his boundlefs
" power and the magnificent exertions of his unlimited goodnefs. Be-
*' nevolence, among all the virtues, has a character more than human,
** and a certain amiable fimplicity in its nature, which feems analogous
*' to thtfrjl idea, tlie original intention of conferring delight, which we
** neceflarily fuppofe in the Creator, when we prefume to feek his motive
" in beftowing exiftence : benevolence is that virtue, or, to fpeak more
•* emphatically, that pritnordial beauty^ which preceded all times and all
** worlds ; and, when we refled: on it, there appears an analogy, obfcure
" indeed at prefent, and to us imperfe£lly known, between our moral
" nature an<3 a time yet very remote, when we fhall fatisfy our ardent
" wifhes and lively hopes, which conftitute perhaps a fixth, and (if the
" phrafe may be ufed) a diftant, fenfe. It may even be imagined, that
" love, the brighteft ornament of our nature, love, enchanting and
" fublime, is a myfterious pledge for the aflurance of thofe hopes ; fince
" love, by difengaging us from ourfelves, by tranfporting us beyond the
VOL. I. 3 0 ** limits
450 ON THE MYSTICAL POETRY
" limits of our own being, is the firft ftep in our progrefs to a joyful
" immortality ; and, by affording both the notion and example of a
" cherifhed objedl difl;in£t from our own fouls, may be confidered as
*' an interpreter to our hearts of fomething, which our intellefts can-
" not conceive. We may feem even to hear the Supreme Intelligence
" and Eternal Soul of all nature, give this commifTion to the fpirits,
" which emaned from him : Go ; admire a fmall portion of my works^
" and Jliidy them ; make your Jirjl trial of happinefs, and learn to love
" him, who bejlowed it ; but fee k not to remove the veil fpread over the
" fecret of your exiftence : your nature is compofed of thofe divine particles,
" "which, at an infinite dijiance, confiitute my own ejfence ; but you would
" be too near me, were you permitted to pei2etrate the myjlery of our fepara-
*' tion and union : wait the moment ordained by my wifdom j and, until
" that moment come, hope to approach me only by adoration and gratitude.'*
If thefe two pafTages were tranflated into Sanfcrit and Perfian^ I am
confident, that the Veddntis and Sufis would confider them as an epi-*
tome of their common fyftem ; for they concur in believing, that the
fouls of men differ infinitely in degree^ but not at all in kind, from the
divine fpirit, of which they are particles, and in which they will ulti-
mately be abforbed ; that the fpirit of God pervades the univerfe,
always immediately prefent to his work, and confequently always in
fubftance, that he alone is perfedl benevolence, perfedl truth, perfect
beauty ; that the love of him alone is real and genuine love, while that
of all other objeds is abfurd and illufory, that the beauties of nature are
faint refemblances, like images in a mirror, of the divine charms ; that,
from eternity without beginning to eternity without end, the fupreme
benevolence is occupied in bellowing happinefs or the means of attain-
ing it ; that men can only attain it by performing their part of the primal
covenant between them and the Creator ; that nothing has a pure abfo-
lute exiflence but mind ox fpirit \ that material fubjlances, as the ignorant
call
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS. 45 1
call them, are no more than gay piSlures prefented continually to our
minds by the femplternal Artlft ; that we muft beware of attachment to
fuch phantoms^ and attach ourfelves exclufively to God, who truly exifts
in us, as we exift folely in him. ; that we retain even in this forlorn ftate
of reparation from our beloved, the idea of heavenly beauty^ and the re-
membrance of our primeval vows ; that fweet mufick, gentle breezes, fra-
grant flowers, perpetually renew the primary idea, refrefh our fading
memory, and melt us with tender affections ; that we muft cherilh thole
affeiSions, and by abftrading our fouls from vanity^ that is, from all but
God, approximate to his elTence, in our final union with which will
confift our fupreme beatitude. From thefe principles flow a thoufand
metaphors and poetical figures, which abound in the facred poems of
the Perjians and Hindus, who feem to mean the fame thing in fubftance,
and differ only in expreffion, as their languages differ in idiom ! The
modern Su'Vis, who profefs a belief in the Koran, fuppoie with great
fublimity both of thought and of didion, an exprejs contrast, on the day
of eternity without beginning, between the affemblage of created fpirits
and the fupreme foul, from which they were detached, when a celefl:ial
voice pronoimced thefe words, addreffed to each fpirit feparately, " Art
" thou not with thy Lord ?" that is, art thou not bound by a folemn
contradt with him ? and all the fpirits anfwered with one voice, " Yes :"
hence it is, that aliji, or art thou not, and beli, or yes, inceffantly occur
in the myftical verfes of the Perfians, and of the Turkifi poets, who
imitate them, as the Rotnans imitated the Greeks. The Hindus defcribe
the fame covenant under the figurative notion, fo finely expreffed by
Isaiah, of a miptial contraB ; for confidering God in the three charac-
ters of Creator, Regenerator and Preferver, and fuppofing the power of
Prefervation and Benevolence to have become incarnate in the perfon of
Crishna, they reprefent him as married to Ra'dha', a word fignify-
ing atonement, pacification, ox fatisfaBion, but applied allegorically \.o the
foul of man, or rather to the ivhole ajfemblage of created foitls^ between
whom
452 ON THE MYSTICAL POETRY
whom and the benevolent Creator they fuppofe that reciprocal love,
which Barrow defcribes with a glow of exprelfion perfedly oriental,
and which our moft orthodox theologians believe to have been myfti-
cally Jhadowed in the fong of Solomon, while they admit, that, in a
literal fenfe, it is an epithalamium on the marriage of the fapient king
with the princefs of Egypt. The very learned author of the preledions
on facred poetry declared his opinion, that the cantkles were founded on
hiftorical truth, but involved an allegory of that fort, which he named
tnyjlical \ and the beautiful poem on the loves of Laili and Majnun
by the inimitable Niza'mi (to fay nothing of other poems on the fame
fubje<fl) is indifputably built on true hiftory, yet avowedly allegorical and
myfterious ; for the introduction to it is a continued rapture on divine
love ; and the name of Laili feems to be ufed in the Majnavi and the
odes of Hafiz for the omniprefent fpirit of God.
It has been made a queftion, whether the poems of Hafiz muft be
taken in a literal or in a figurative fenfe ; but the queftion does not ad-
mit of a general and direct anfwer ; for even the moft enthufiaftick of
his commentators, allow, that fome of them are to be taken literally, and
his editors ought to have diftinguifhed them, as our Spenser has dif-
tingulftied his four Odes on Love and Beauty^ inftead of mixing the pro-
fane with the divine, by a childilh arrangement according to the alpha-
betical order of the rhymes. Hafiz never pretended to more than
human virtues, and it is known that he had human propenfities ;
for in his youth he was paffionately in love with a girl furnamed
Shdkhi Nebaty or the Branch of Sugarcane^ and the prince of Sbiraz
was his rival : fmce there is an agreeable wildnefs in the ftory, and
fince the poet himfelf alludes to it in one of his odes, I give it you
at length from the commentary. There is a place called Pirijebz^ or the
Green old man^ about four Perjian leagues from the city ; and a popular
opinion had long prevailed, that a youth, who Ihould pafs forty fuccef-
five
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS. 453^
five nights in Pirifebz without fleep, would infallibly become an excel-
lent poet : young Hafiz had accordingly made a vow, that he would
ferve that apprenticelhip with the utmoft exa£lnefs, and for thirty-nine
days he rigoroufly difcharged his duty, walking every morning before
the houfe of his coy miftrefs, taking fome refrefhment and reft at noon,
and pafling the night awake at his poetical ftation ; but, on the fortieth
morning, he was tranfpoited with joy on feeing the girl beckon to him
through the lattices, and invite him to enter : fhe received him with rap-
ture, declared her preference of a bright genius to the fon of a king, and
would have detained him all night, if he had not recoUedbed his vow,
and, refolving to keep it inviolate, returned to his port. The people of
Shiraz add (and the fi<Slion is grounded on a couplet of Hafiz), that,
early next morning an old man^ in a green mantL'^ who was no lefs a
perfonage than Khizr himfelf, approached him at Ptrijebz with a cup
brimful of nedtar, which the Greeks would have called the water of
Aganippe^ and rewarded his perfeverance with an infpiring draught of it.
After his juvenile paffions had fubiided, we may fuppofe that his mind
took that religious bent, which appears in moft of his compofitions j for
there can be no doubt that the following diftichs, colIed;ed from different
odes, relate to the myftical theology of the Sufis :
" In eternity without beginning, a ray of thy beauty began to gleam j
" when Love fprang into being, and caft flames over all nature j
" Gn that day thy cheek fparkled even under thy veil, and all this
** beautiful imagery appeared on the mirror of our fancies.
" Rife, my foul ; that I may pour thee forth on the pencil of that
*' fupreme Artift, who comprized In a turn of his compafs all this won-
" derful fcenery !
" From
454 ON THE MYSTICAL POETRY
" From the moment, when I heard the divine fentence, / have breathed
** into man a portion of my fpirit^ I was affured, that we were His, and
*' He ours. .
*' Where are the glad tidings of union with thee, that I may abandon
*' all defire of life ? I am a bird of holinefs, and would fain efcape from
*' the net of this world.
^ " Shed, O Lord, from the cloud of heavenly guidance one cheering
*' fhower, before the moment, when I muft rife up like a particle of dry
■*' duft !
" The fum of our tranfadiions in this univerfe, is nothing : bring us
" the wine of devotion j for the pofTeflions of this world vanilli.
" The true objedt of heart and foul is the glory of union with our
*• beloved : that objedl really exifts, but without it both heart and foul
*' would have no exiflence.
*' O the blifs of that day, when I fhall depart from this defolate man-
*' fion ; fhall feek reft for my foul ; and fhall follow the traces of my
" beloved :
" Dancing, with love of his beauty, like a mote in a fun-beam, till I
" reach the fpring and fountain of light, whence yon fun derives all his
« luftre!"
The couplets, which follow, relate as indubitably to human love and
fenfual gratifications :
" May the hand never fhake, which gathered the grapes ! May the
" foot never flip, which prefTed them !
" That
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS. 455
" That poignant liquor, which the zealot calls the mother of fins ^ is
" pleafanter and fweeter to me than the kifles of a maiden.
" Wine two years old and a damfel of fourteen are fufficient fociety
" for me, above all companies great or fmall.
" How delightful is dancing to lively notes and the cheerful melody
*' of the flute, efpecially when we touch the hand of a beautiful girl !
" Call for wine, and fcatter fowers around : what more canjl thou afk
*' from fate ? Thus fpoke the nightingale this morning : what fayeft thou,
" fweet rofe, to his precepts ?
" Bring thy couch to the garden of rofes, that thou mayeft kifs the
*' cheeks and lips of lovely damfels, quaff rich wine, and fmell odori-
*' ferous bloffoms.
" O branch of an exquifite rofe-plant, for whofe fake doft thou grow ?
" Ah ! on whom will that fmiling rofe-bud confer delight ?
" The rofe would have difcourfed on the beauties of my charmer, but
*• the gale was jealous, and Hole her breath, before ihe fpoke.
" In this age, the only friends, who are free from blemifh, are a flafk
" of pure wine and a volume of elegant love fongs.
" O the joy of that moment, when the felf-fufficiency of inebriation
" rendered me independent of the prince and of his minifter !"
Many zealous admirers of Ha'fiz infift, that by wine he invariably
means devotion ; and they have gone fo far as to compofe a dldionary of
words
456 ON THE MYSTICAL POETRY
words in the lajiguage^ as they call it, of the Sufis : in that vocabulary
Jleep is explained by meditation on the divine perfe£lions, and perfume by
hope of the divine favour ; gales are iUapfs of grace ; kiffes and embraces^
the raptures of piety ; idolaters, infidels, and lihertines are men of the
pureft religion^ and their idolh. the Creator himfelf ; the tavern is a retired
oratory, and its keeper^ a fage inftrudlor ; beauty denotes the perfeSlion of
the Supreme Being ; trefeszxc the expanfion of his glory ; lipSy the hidden
myfteries of his efTence ; down on the cheek, the world of fpirits, who
encircle his throne ; and a black fnole, the point of indivifible unity ;
laflly, ivantonnefs, mirth, and ebriety, mean religious ardour and abflrac-
tion from all terreftrial thoughts. The poet himfelf gives a colour in
many paflages to fuch an interpretation ; aiKl without it, we can hardly
conceive, that his poems, or thofe of his numerous imitators, would be
tolerated in a Mufelman country, efpecially at Confiantinople, where they
are venerated as divine compofitions : it muft be admitted, that the fub-
limity of the myfiical allegory, which, like metaphors and comparifons,
fhould be general only, not minutely exa£l, is diminifhed, if not deftroy-
edj by an attempt .at particular and dijlinEl refemblances ; and that the
ftyle itfelf is open to dangerous mifmterpretation, while it fupplies real
Infidels with a pretext for laughing at religion itfelf.
On this occafion I cannot refrain from producing a moft extraordinary
ode by a Sufi of Bokhara, who aflumed the poetical furname of Ismat :
a more modern poet, by prefixing three lines to each couplet, which
rhyme with the firfl; hemiftich, has very elegantly and ingenioufly con-
verted the Kafidah into a Mokhammes, but I prefent you only with a
literal verfion of the original diftichs :
" Yefterday, half inebriated, I paffcd by the quarter, where the vint-
** ners dwell, to feek the daughter of an infidel who fellt; wine.
•'♦ At
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS. 457
" At the end of the ftreet, there advanced before me a damfel with a
*' fairy's cheeks, who, in the manner of a pagan, wore her trefles defhe-
" veiled over her fhoulder like the facerdotal thread. I faid : O thou, to
** the arch of whofe eye-hrow the^ new moon is a Jlave, what quarter is this
" and where is thy man/ion ?
" She anfwered : Caji thy rofary on the ground; bind on thy Jhoulder-
" the thread of pagan fm j throw Jiones at the glafs of piety ; arid quaff
" wine from a full goblet y
** After that come before me^ that I may whifper a word in thine ear :
" thou wilt accomplijh thy journey, if thou lijlen to my difcourfe.
" Abandoning my heart and rapt in ecftafy, I ran after her, till I came
" to a place, in which religion and reafon forfook me.
" At a diftance I beheld a company, all infane and inebriated, who
" came boiling and roaring with ardour from the wine of love i
" Without cymbals, or lutes, or viols, yet all full of mirth and me-
" lody J without wine, ox goblet, or flafk, yet all inceffantly drinking.
" When the cord of reftraint flipped from my hand, I defired to alk
" her one queftion, but fhe faid : Silence !
*' This is no fquare temple^ to the gate of which thou canjl arrive pre-
" cipitately : this is no mofque to which thou canji come with tumult, but
** without knowledge. This is the banquet -houfe of infdels, and within it
" all are intoxicated', all, from the dawn of eternity to the day of refurrec-
" tion, lojl in ajionijl.iment .
VOL, I. 3 p " Depart
458 ON THE MYSTICAL POETRY
*' Depart then from the cloijler, and take the way to the tavern ; cajl
" off the cloak of a dervife, and wear the robe of a libertine.
" I obeyed ; and, if thou defireft the fame ftrain and colour with
" IsMAT, imitate him, and fell this world and the next for one drop of
" pure wine."
Such is the ftrange religion, and ftranger language of the Sufis j
but moft of the Afiatick poets are of that religion, and, if we think it
worth while to read their poems, we muft think it worth while to under-
ftand them : their great Maulavi aflures us, that " they profefs eager
" defire, but with no carnal affedion, and circulate the cup, but no ma-
" terial goblet ; fmce all things are fpiritual in their fed, all is myftery
" within myftery ;" confiftently with which declaration he opens his
aftonifhing work, entitled the Mafnavi^ with the following couplets :
Hear, how yon reed in fadly-pleafmg tales
Departed blifs and prefent wo bewails !
* "With me, from native banks untimely torn,
* Love-warbling youths and foft-ey'd virgins mourn.
* O ! Let the heart, by fatal abfence rent,
' Feel what I fmg, and bleed when I lament :
* Who roams in exile from his parent bow'r,
' Pants to return, and chides each ling'ring hour.
' My notes, in circles of the grave and gay,
* Have hail'd the rifmg, cheer'd the clofmg day :
* Each in my fond affedions claim'd a part,
' But none difcern'd the fecret of my heart.
* What though my ftrains and forrows flow combin'd !
* Yet ears are flow, and carnal eyes are blind.
' Free
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS
* Free through each mortal form the fpirlts roll,
' But fight avails not. Can we fee the foul ?'
Such notes breath'd gently from yon vocal frame :
Breath'd faid I ? no ; 'twas all enliv'ning flame.
'Tis love, that fills the reed with warmth divine ;
*Tis love, that fparkles in the racy wine.
Me, plaintive wand'rer from my peerlefs maid.
The reed has fir'd, and all my foul betray'd.
He gives the bane, and he with balfam cures ;
Afflids, yet fooths ; impaffions, yet allures.
Delightful pangs his am'rous tales prolong ;
And Laili's frantick lover lives in fong.
Not he, who reafons beft, this wifdom knows :
Ears only drink what rapt'rous tongues difclofe.
Nor fruitlefs deem the reed's heart-piercing pain :
See fweetnefs dropping from the parted cane.
Alternate hope and fear my days divide :
I courted Grief, and Anguilh was my bride.
Flow on, fad ftream of life ! I fmile fecure :
Thou liveft ; Thou, the pureft of the pure !
Rife, vlg'rous youth ! be free ; be nobly bold :
Shall chains confine you, though they blaze with gold ?
Go ; to your vafe the gather'd main convey :
What w^ere your ftores ? The pittance of a day !
New plans for wealth your fancies would invent ;
Yet fhells, to nourifh pearls, mull lie content.
The man, whofe robe love's purple arrows rend
Bids av'rice reft and toils tumultuous end.
Hail, heav'nly love ! true fource of endlefs gains !
Thy balm reftores me, and thy fkill fuftains.
459
Oh,
KJO ON THE MYSTICAL POETRY
Oh, more than Galen learn'd, than Plato wife !
My guide, my law, my joy fupreme arife !
Love warms this frigid clay with myftick fire,
And dancing mountains leap with young defire.
Blefl is the foul, that fwims in feas of love.
And long the life fuftain'd by food above.
With forms imperfed can perfection dwell ?
Here paufe, my fong ; and thou, vain world, farewel,
A volume might be filled with fimilar paflages from the Suf, poets ;
from Sa'ib, Orfi, Mi'r Khosrau, Ja'mi, Hazi'n, and Sa'bik,
who are next in beauty of compofition to Ha'fiz and Sadi, but next
at a confiderable diftance ; from Mesi'hi, the moft elegant of their
TurkiJJ:) imitators ; from a few Hindi poets of our own times, and
from Ibnul Fa red, who wrote myflical odes in Arabick ; but we
may clofe this account of the Sufis with a paffage from the third book of
the Bust AN, the declared fubje£t of which is divine love-, referring you
for a particular detail of their metaphyficks and theology to the T)abijian
of MoHS ANi Fani, and to the pleafing eflay, called the Jundion of tivo
SeaSy by that amiable and unfortunate prince, Da'ra' Shecu'h :
" The love of a being compofed, like thyfelf, of water and clay, de-
" ftroys thy patience and peace of mind ; it excites thee, in thy waking
" hours with minute beauties, and engages thee, in thy fleep, with vain
" imaginations : with fuch real affedtion doft thou lay thy head on her
'' foot,that the univerfe, in comparifon of her, vanifhes into nothing before
" thee ; and, fince thy gold allures not her eye, gold and mere earth ap-
" pear equal in thine. Not a breath doft thou utter to any one elfe, for
" with her thou haft no room for any other ; thou declareft that her
" abode is in thine eye, or, when thou clofeft it, in thy heart ; thou haft
" no
OF THE PERSIANS AND HINDUS. 4^1
no fear of cenfure from any man ; thou haft no power to be at reft
for a moment ; if fhe demands thy foul, it runs inftantly to thy lip ;
and if (he waves a cimeter over thee, thy head falls immediately under
it. Since an abfurd love, with its bafis on aii-, affeds thee fo violently,
and commands with a fway fo defpotic, canft thou wonder, that they,
who walk in the true path, are drowned in the fea of myfterious
adoration ? They difregard life through afFe(5tion for its giver ; they
abandon the world through remembrance of its maker ; they are
inebriated with the melody of amorous complaints ; they remember
their beloved, and refign to him both this life and the next. Through
remembrance of God, they fliun all mankind : they are fo enamoured
of the cup-bearer, that they fpill the wine from the cup. No panacea
can heal them, for no mortal can be apprized of their malady; fo
loudly has rung in their ears, from eternity without beginning, the
divine word akj^^ with iePi^ the tumultuous exclamation of all fpirits.
They are a fe£l fully employed, but fitting in retirement ; their feet
are of earth, but their breath is a flame : with a fmgle yell they could
rend a mountain from its bafe ; with a fingle cry they could throw a
city into confufion : like wind, they are concealed and move nimbly ;
like ftone, they are filent, yet repeat God's praifes. At early dawn
their tears flow fo copioufly as to wafti from their eyes the black
powder of fleep : though the courfer of their fancy ran fo fwiftly all
night, yet the morning finds them left behind in diforder ; night and
day are they plunged in an ocean of ardent defire, till they are unable,
through aftonifhment, to dlftinguifti night from day. So enraptured
are they with the beauty of Him, w^io decorated the human form,
that with the beauty of the form itfelf, they have no concern ; and, if
ever they behold a beautiful ftiape, they fee in it the myftery of God's
work.
The
462
" The wife take not the hufk in exchange for the kernel ; and ha,
" who makes that choice, has no underftanding. He only has drunk
" the pure wine of unity, who has forgotten, by remembering God, all
" things elfe in both worlds."
Let us return to the Hindus, among whom we now find the fame em-
blematical theology, which Pythagoras admired and adopted. The loves
of Crishna and Radha, or the reciprocal attradlion between the
divine goodnefs and the human foul, are told at large in the tenth book
of the Bhdgavat, and are the fubject of a little Pajtoral Drama, entitled
Gitagovinda : it was the work of Jayade'va, who flourifhed, it is faid,
before Calidas, and was born, as he tells us himfelf, in Cenduli,
which many believe to be in Calinga ; but, fince there is a town of a
fimllar name in Eerdwan, the natives of it infill that the fineft lyrick
poet of India was their countryman, and celebrate in honour of him an
annual jubilee, pafling a whole night in reprefenting his drama, and in
fmging his beautiful fongs. After having tranflated the Gitagovinda
word for word, I reduced my tranflation to the form, in which it is now
exhibited ; omitting only thofe paflages, which are too luxuriant and too
bold for an European tafte, and the prefatory ode on the ten incarnations
of Vishnu, with which you have been prefented on another occafion :
the phrafes in Italicks, are the burdens of the feveral fongs ; and you may
be affured, that not a fingle image or idea has been added by the
tranflator.
GI'TA-
GITAGOVINDA
OR,
THE SONGS OF JAYADEVA.
X H E firmament is obfcured by clouds ; the woodlands are black
* with Tamd/a-trees ; that youth, who roves in the foreft, will be fear-
* ful in the gloom of night: go, my daughter; bring the wanderer
* home to my ruftick manfion.' Such was the command of Nanda,
the fortunate herdfman ; and hence arofe the love of Ra'dha' and Ma'-
DHAVA, who fported on the bank of Tatnuna^ or haftened eagerly to the
fecret bower.
If thy foul be delighted with the remembrance of Heri, or fenfible to
the raptures of love, liften to the voice of Jayade'va, whofe notes are
both fweet and brilliant. O thou, who reclineft on the bofom of Ca-
mala'; whofe ears flame with gems, and whofe locks are embellifhed
with fylvan flowers ; thou, from whom the day fl:ar derived his efful-
gence, who flewefl the venom-breathing Ca'liya, who beamedft, like a
fun, on the tribe of Yadu, that flourifhed like a lotos ; thou, who fittefl:
on the plumage of Garura, who, by fubduing demons, gavefl exquifite
joy to the afl'embly of immortals ; thou, for whom the daughter of Ja-
naca was decked in gay apparel, by whom Du'shana was over-
thrown ;
4C)4 GITAGO'VINDA ; OR,
thrown ; thou, whofe eye fparklcs Hke the water-lily, who calledft three
worlds into exiftence ; thou, by whom the rocks of Mandar were eafily
fupported, who fippeft nedtar from the radiant iips of Pedma', as the
fluttering Chacora drinks the moon-beams; be victorious ^ O Heri, lord
of conqueji.
Ra'dha' fought him long in vain, and her thoughts were confounded
by the fever of defire : fhe roved in the vernal morning among the
twining Vafcvitis covered with foft bloflbms, when a damfel thus ad-
dreffed her with youthful hilarity : ' The gale, that has wantoned round
* the beautiful clove-plants, breathes now from the hills of Maylaya ; the
' circling arbours refound with the notes of the Cocil and the murmurs
* of honey-making fwarms. Now the hearts of damfels, whofe lovers
' travel at a diftance, are pierced with anguifli ; while the bloflbms of
' Bacul are confpicuous among the flowrets covered with bees. The
' Tamala^ with leaves dark and odorous, claims a tribute from the mufk,
* which it vanquifhes ; and the cluftering flowers of the Paldfa refemble
* the nails of Ca'ma, with which he rends the hearts of the young.
' The full-blown Cefara gleams like the fceptre of the world's monarch,
' Love ; and the pointed thyrfe of the Cetaca refembles the darts, by
' which lovers are wounded. See the bunches of P/itali-^owcrs, filled
' with bees, like the qviiver of Smara full of fhafts ; while the tender
' blofl"om of the Caruna fmiles to fee the whole world laying fhame afide.
* The far-fcented Mddhavi beautifies the trees, round which it twines ;
* and the frefli Mallica feduces with rich perfume even the hearts of
* hermits ; while the A)7ira-X.rQQ with blooming trefl'es is embraced by
' the gay creeper AtimuSla^ and the blue fl:reams of Tamuna wind round
* the groves of Vrinddvan. In this charming feafon, ivhich gives pain to
*■ feparated lovers^ young Heri fports and dances with a company of damfels.
* A breeze, like the breath of love, from the fragrant flowers of the Ce-
* taca^ kindles every heart, whilft it perfumes the woods with the dufl:,
hich
w
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA. 465
* which it fhakes from the Mallica with half-opened buds j and the Cocila
* burfls into fong, when he fees the bloflbms gliftening on the lovely
* Rasala:
The jealous Ra'dha' gave no anfwer; and, foon after, her officious
friend, perceiving the foe of Mura in the foreft eager for the rapturous
embraces of the herdfmen's daughters, with whom he was dancing, thus
again addrefled his forgotten miftrefs : ' With a garland of wild flowers
* defcending even to the yellow mantle, that girds his azure limbs, dif-
* tinguifhed by fmiling cheeks and by ear-rings, that fparkle^ as he plays,
* Her I exults in the ajj'emblage of amorous damfels. One of them preffes
*him with her fwelling breaft, while fhe warbles with exquifite melody.
* Another, affedled by a glance from his eye, ftands meditating on the
* lotos of his face. A third, on pretence of whifpering a fecret in his ear,
* approaches his temples, and kifTes them with ardour. One feizes his
* mantle and draws him towards her, pointing to the bower on the banks
* of Yamuna, where elegant Vanjulas interweave their branches. He ap-
* plauds another, who dances in the fportive circle, whilft her bracelets
* ring, as fhe beats time with her palms. Now he carefTes one, and
* kifles another, fmiling on a third with complacency ; and now he
* chafes her, whofe beauty has moft allured him. Thus the wanton
* Her I froiicks, in the feafon of fweets, among- the maids of Vraja, who
* rufh to his embraces, as if he were Pleafure itfelf affuming a human
* form; and one of them, under a pretext of hymning his divine per~
* fedions, whifpers in his ear : " Thy lips, my beloved, are nedar."
Ra'dha' remains in the foreft ; but refenting the promifcuous paflion
of Heri, and his negleft of her beauty, which he once thought fu-
periour, fhe retires to a bower of twining plants, the fummit of which
refounds with the humming of fwarms engaged in their fweet labours ;
and there, falling languid on the ground, flie thus addrefTes her female
VOL, I. 3 Q^ companionu..
466 GI'TAGO'VINDA i OR,
companion. * Though he take recreation in my abfcence, and fmile on all
* around him, yet fnyfoul remembers him^ whofe beguiling reed anodulates
* a tune fweetened by the ne(5lar of his quivering lip, while his ear
' fparkles with gems, and his eye darts amorous glances ; Him, whofe
* locks are decked with the plumes of peacocks refplendent with many-
' coloured moons, and whofe mantlq gleams like a dark blue cloud illu-
* mined with rain-bows ; Him, whofe graceful fmile gives new luftre to
* his lips, brilliant and foft as a dewy leaf, fweet and ruddy as the bloflbm
* of Bandhujiva, while they tremble with eagernefs to kifs the daughters
* of the herdfmen ; Him, who difperfes the gloom with beams from the
* jewels, which decorate his bofom, his wrifts, and his ankles, on whofe
* forehead fhines a circlet of fandal-wood, which makes even the moon
' contemptible, when it fails through irradiated clouds ; Him, whofe ear-
* rings are formed of entire gems in the Ihape of the fifh Macar on the
' banners of Love ; even the yellow-robed God, whofe attendants are the
' chiefs of deities, of holy men, and of demons ; Him, who reclines under
' a gay Cadamba-irto. ; who formerly delighted me, while he gracefully
' waved in the dance, and all , his foul fparkled in his eye. My weak
' mind thus enumerates his qualities ; and, though offended, ftrives to
' banifh offence. What elfe can it do ? It cannot part with its affedion
' for Crishna, whofe love is excited by other damfels, and who fports
' in the abfence of Ra'dha'. Bring, O friend, that vanquiflier . of the
' demon Ce'si, to /port with me ^ who am repairing to a fecret bower,
' who look timidly on all fides, who meditate with arnorous fancy on,
* his divine transfiguration. Bring him, whofe difcourfe was once com-
' pofed of the gentleft words, to converfe with me, who am bafhful on
' his firft approach, and exprefs my thoughts with a frnife fweet as
' honey. Bring him, who formerly flept on niy bofom, to recline with
' me on a green bed of leaves jufl gathered, while his lip fheds dew, and
' my arms enfold him. Bring him, who has attained the perfedion of
' fkill in love's art, whofe hand ufed to prefs thefe .firm and delicate
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA. 467
' fpheres, to ptay witn me, whole voice rivals that of the Uocu, and wKofe
' trefles arc bound v^Mth waving bloflbms. Bring him, who formerly
* drew me by the locks to his embrace, to repofe with me, whofe feet
' tinkle, as they move, with rings of gold and of gems, whofe looferied
' zone founds, as it falls ; and whofe limbs are flender and flexible as the
' creeping plant. That God, whofe cheeks are beautified by the nedar
' of his fmiles, whofe pipe drops iti his ecftafy, I faw in the grove en-
' circled by the damfets of Vraj'a, who gazed on him afkahce from the
' corners of their eyes: I faw him in the grove with happier damfels,
* yet the fight of him delighted me. Soft is the gale, which breathes
* over yon clear pool, and expands the cluftering bloflbms of the voluble
* Asica ; foft, yet grievous to me in the abfence of the foe of Madhu.
* Delightful are the flowers of Amra-Vcies oh the mountain-top, while
' the murmuring bees purfue their voluptuous toil ; delightful, yet
' afllidling to me, O friend, in the abfence of the youthful Ce'sava.'
Meantime, the defl:royer of Cans a, having brought to his remem-
brance the amiable Ra'dha', forfook the beautiful damfels of Vraja : he
fought' her in all parts of the forefl: ; his old wound from love's arrow
bled again ; he repented of his levity, and, feated in a bower near the
bank of Tamuna^ the blue daughter of the fun, thus 'poured forth his
lamentation^
* She is departed — fhe faw me, no doubt, furrounded by the wanton
* fhepherdefl'es ; yet, confcious of my fault, I durfl: not intercept her
* flight. Wo is me ! Jhe feels a fenfe of injured honour, and is departed
' in wrath. How will fhe conduct herfelf ? How will fhe exprefs her
* pain in fo long a feparation ? What is wealth to me ? What are nu-
* merous attendants ? What are the pleafures of the world ? What joy
* can I receive from a heavenly abode ? I feem to behold her face with
* eye-brows contra<Sting themfelves through her juft refentment : it re-
' fembles
4-08 GI'TAGO'VINDAi OR,
' fembles a frefli lotos, over which two black bees are fluttering : I feem
' fo prefent is fhe to my imagination, even now to carefs her with eager-
' nefs. Why then do I feek her in this foreft ? V/hy do I lament with-
' out caufe ? O flender damfel, anger, I know, has torn thy foft bofom ;
* but whither thou art retired, I know not. How can I invite thee to
* return ? Thou art feen by me, indeed, in a vifion ', thou feemeft to
' move before me. Ah ! why doft thou not rufh, as before, to my em-
' brace ? Do but forgive me : never again will I commit a iimilar offence.
* Grant me but a fight of thee, O lovely Ra'dhica'; for my paifion
* torments me. I am not the terrible Make's a: a garland of water-
' lilies with fubtil threads decks my fhoulders ; not ferpents with twifted
' folds : the blue petals of the lotos glitter on my neck ; not the azure
' gleam of poifon : powdered fandal-wood is fprinkled on my limbs j not
* pale aflies : O God of Love, miftake me not for Mah a'de'va. Wound
* me not again ; approach me not in anger ; I love already but too paf-
' fionately ; yet I have loft my beloved. Hold not in thy hand that
' fliaft barbed with an ^mra-Eower ! Brace not thy bow, thou con-
' queror of the world ! Is it valour to flay one who faints ? My heart is
* already pierced by arrows from Ra'dha"s eyes, black and keen as
' thofe of an antelope ; yet mine eyes are not gratified with her prefence.
* Her eyes are full of Ihafts ; her eye-brows are bows ; and the tips of
' her ears are filken fl:rings : thus armed by Ananga, the God of De-
' fire, fhe marches, herfelf a goddefs, to enfure his triumph over the
' vanquiihed univerfe. I meditate on her delightful embrace, on the
' ravifhing glances darted from her eye, on the fragrant lotos of her
' mouth, on her neftar-dropping fpeech ; on her lips ruddy as the berries
* of the Bimha ; yet even my fixed meditation on fuch an aflemblage of
■' charms encreafes, infl:ead of alleviating, the mifery of feparation.'
The damfel, commiflloned by Ra'DHa', found the difconfolate God
under an arbour of fpreading Vaniras by the fide of Tamuna\ where,
prefenting
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA. 469
prefenting herfelf gracefully befoi-e him, fhe thus defcribed the afflidion
of his beloved :
* She defplfes effence of fandal-wood, and even by moon-light fits
* brooding over her gloomy forrow ; fhe declares the gale of Malaya to
' be venom, and the fandal-trees, through which it has breathed, to have
' been the haunt of ferpents. "Thus, O Ma'dhava, is fie affliSled in thy
' ahfence with the pain, which love's dart has occafio7ied : her foul is fxed
* on thee. Frefh arrows of defire are continually aflailing her, and fhe
' forms a net of lotos-leaves as armour for her heart, which thou alone
* fliouldft fortify. She makes her own bed of the arrows darted by the
' flowery-fhafted God ; but, when fhe hoped for thy embrace, fhe had
* formed for thee a couch of foft bloffoms. Her face is like a water-lily,
* veiled in the dew of tears, and her eyes appear like moons eclipfed,
* which let fall their gathered nedar through pain caufed by the tooth
' of the furious dragon. She draws thy image with mufk in the cha-
* rafter of the Deity with five fhafts, having fubdued the Macar^ or
* horned fhark, and holding an arrow tipped with an Amra-^o^tr ', thus
* fhe draws thy pidure, and worfliips it. At the clofe of every fentence,
" O Ma'dhava, fhe exclaims, at thy feet am I fallen, and in thy ab-
*' fence even the moon, though it be a vafe full of nedar, inflames my
" limbs." Then, by the power of imagination, fhe figures thee fland-
* ing before her ; thee, who art not cafily attained : fhe fighs, fhe fmiles,
* fhe mourns, fhe weeps, fhe moves from fide to fide, fhe lam-ents and re-
' joices by turns. Her abode is a foreft ; the circle of her female com-
' panions is a net ; her fighs are flames of fire kindled in a thicket ; her-
' felf (alas ! through thy abfence) is become a timid roe ; and Love is -
* the tiger, who fprings on her like Yama, the Genius of Death. So-
* emaciated is her beautiful body, that even the light garland, which
* waves over her bofom, fhe thinks a load. Such, O bright-haired God^
* is Ra'dha' when thou art abfent. If powder of fandal-wood finely
* levigated
470 GITAGO'VINDA ; OR,
' levigated be moiftened and applied to her breafts, fhe ftarts, and mif-
' takes it for poifon. Her fighs form a breeze long extended, and burn
' her like the flame, which reduced Candarpa to afhes. She throws
' around her eyes, like blue water-lilies with broken ftalks, dropping
' lucid ftreams. Even her bed of tender leaves appear in her fight like a
' kindled fire. The palm of her hand fupports her aching temple, motion-
' lefs as the crefcent rifing at eve. " Heri, Heri," thus in filence fhe
' meditates on thy name, as if her wifh were gratified, and fhe were dying
' through thy abfence. She rends her locks ; fhe pants ; fhe laments
' inarticulately ; fhe trembles ; fhe pines ; fhe mufes ; fhe moves from
' place to place ; fhe clofes her eyes ; fhe falls ; fhe rifes again ; fhe
' faints : in fuch a fever of love, fhe may live, O celeftial phyfician, if
' thou adminifter the remedy ; but, fhouldft Thou be unkind, her malady
' will be defperate. Thus, O divine healer, by the nedar of thy love
' mufl Ra'dha' be reftored to health; and, if thou refufe it, thy heart
* muft be harder than the thunderflone. Long has her foul pined, and
' long has fhe been heated with fandal-wood, moon-light, and water-
' lilies, with which others are cooled ; yet fhe patiently and in fecret
' meditates on Thee, who alone canfl relieve her. Shouldfl thou be in-
' conflant, how can fhe, wafted as fhe is to a fhadow, fupport life a
* fingle moment ? How can fhe, who lately could not endure thy ab-
' fence even an inftant, forbear fighing now, when fhe looks with half-
* clofed eyes on the Rasdla with bloomy branches, which remind her of
* the vernal feafon, when fhe firft beheld thee with rapture ?
* Here have I chofen my abode : go quickly to Ra'dha' ; foothe her
•with my meffage, and condu£t her hither.' So fpoke the foe of
Madhu to the anxious damfel, who haftened back, and thus addreffed
her companion : ' Whilft a fweet breeze from the hills of Malaya comes
* wafting on his plumes the young God of Defire ; while many a flower
' points his extended petals to pierce the bofom of feparated lovers, the
* Deity
THE SONGS OF JAY ADE'VA. 47 1
Deity crowned with fylvan blojfoms, laments, O friend^ in thy abfence.
Even the dewy rays of the moon burn him ; and, as the (haft of love
is defcending, he mourns inarticulately with increafmg diftradtion.
When the bees murmur foftly, he covers his ears ; mifery fits fixed in
his heart, and every returning night adds anguifh to anguifh. He
quits his radiant palace for the wild foreft, where he finks on a- bed of
cold clay, and frequently mutters thy name. In yon bower, to which
the pilgrims of love are ufed to repair, he meditates on thy form, re-
peating in filence fome enchanting word, which once dropped from
thy lips, and thirfting for the nedtar which they alone can fupply.
Delay not, O lovelieft of women ; follow the lord of thy heart : behold,
he feeks the appointed fhade, bright with the ornaments of love, and
confident of the promifed blifs. Having bound his locks with forejl-
JlowerSy he hajiens to yon arbour^ where afoft gale breathes over the banks
of Yamuna : there, again pronouncing thy name, he modulates his
divine reed. Oh ! with what rapture doth he gaze on the golden dufl,
which the breeze fhakes from expanded blofl~oms ; the breeze, which"
has kiffed thy cheek ! With a mind, languid as a dropping wing, feeble
as a trembling leaf, he doubtfully experts thy approach, and timidly
looks on the path which thou mull tread. Leave behind thee, O friend,
the ring which tinkles on thy delicate ankle, when thou fporteft in the
dance ; haftily caft over thee thy azure mantle, and run to the gloomy
bower. The reward of thy fpeed, O thou who fparkleft like lightning,
will be to fhine on the blue bofom of Mura'ri, which refembles
a vernal cloud, decked with a firing of pearls like a flock of white
water-birds fluttering in the air. Difappoint not, O thou lotos-eyed,
the vanquiflier of Madhu ; accomplifli his defire ; but go quickly : it
is night; and the night alfo will quickly depart. Again and again he
fighs ; he looks around ; he re-enters the arbour ; he can fcarce articu-
late thy fweet name ; he again fmooths his flowery couch ; he looks
wild ; he becomes frantick : thy beloved will perifh through defire.
. ' The
472 GITAGO'VINDA ; OR,
* The bright-beamed God finks in the weft, and thy pain of feparation
' may alfo be removed : the blacknefs of the night is increafed, and the
*■ paffionate imagination of Go'vinda has acquired additional gloom.
* My addrefs to thee has equalled in length and in fweetnefs the fong of
* the Cocila : delay will make thee miferable, O my beautiful friend,
* Seize the moment of delight in the place of affignation with the fon of
' De'vaci', who defcended from heaven to remove the burdens of the
*^ univerfe ; he is a blue gem on the forehead of the three worlds, and
*^ longs to fip honey, like the bee, from the fragrant lotos of thy cheek.'
But the folicitous maid, perceiving that Ra'dha' was unable through
debility, to move from her arbour of flowery creepers, returned to Go'-
vinda, who was himfelf difordered with love, and thus defcribed her
fituation.
' She mourns, 0 fovereign of the world, in her "verdant bower ; fhe looks
*^ eagerly on all fides in hope of thy approach ; then, gaining ftrength
' from the delightful idea of the propofed meeting, fhe advances a few
* fteps, and. falls languid on the ground. When fhe rifes, fhe weaves
* bracelets of frefh leaves; fhe drefles herfelf like her beloved, and, look-
* ing at herfelf in fport, exclaims, " Behold the vanquifher of Madhu !"
' Then fhe repeats again and again the name of Heri, and, catching at
* a dark blue cloud, ftrives to embrace it, faying: "It is my beloved
" who approaches." Thus, while thou art dilatory, fhe lies expedihg
' thee ; fhe mourns ; fhe weeps ; fhe puts on her gayeft ornaments to
' receive her lord ; fhe compreffes her deep fighs within her bofom ; and
* then, meditating on thee, O cruel, fhe is drowned in a fea of rapturous
* imaginations. If a leaf but quiver, fhe fuppofes thee arrived ; fhe
' fpreads her couch ; fhe forms in her mind a hundred modes of delight :
* yet, if thou go not to her bower, fhe muft die this night through ex-
' celTive. anguifh.'
By
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA. 475
By this time the moon fpread a net of beams over the groves of Vrin-
davariy and looked Uke a drop of liquid fandal on the face of the fky,
which fmiled like a beautiful damfel ; vrhile its orb with many fpots be-
trayed, as it were, a confcioufnefs of guilt, in having often attended amor-
ous maids to the lofs of their family honour. The moon, with a black
fawn couched on its difc, advanced in its nightly courfe ; but Ma'dhava
had not advanced to the bower of Ra'dha', who thus bewailed his de-
lay with notes of varied lamentation,
* The appointed moment is come ; but Heri, alas ! comes not to the-
* grove. Muft the feafon of my unblemifhed youth pafs thus idly
* away ? Oh ! what refuge can I feek, deluded as I am by the guile of my
' female advifer ? The God with five arrows has wounded my heart j
* and I am deferted by Him, for whofe fake I have fought at night the
* darkeft recefs of the foreft. Since my bell beloved friends have deceived
' me, it is my wifh to die : fmce my fenfes are difordered, arid my bo-
* fom is on fire, wKy ftay I longer in this world ? The eoolnefs of this
' vernal night gives me pain, inftead of refrefhment : fome happier damfel
* enjoys my beloved ; whilft I, alas ! am looking at the gems in my
' bracelets, which are blackened by the flames of my paflion. My neck,
* more delicate than the tendereft bloflbm, is hurt by the garland, that
* encircles it : flowers, are, indeed, the arrows of Love, and he plays
* with them cruelly. I make this wood my dwelling : I regard not the
* roughnefs of the Vitas-xx^^^ \ but the deftroyer of Mauhu holds me
* not in his remembrance ! Why comes he not to the bower of bloomy
* Fanjulasy afligned for our meeting ? Some ardent rival, no doubt, keeps
*^ him locked in her embrace : or have his companions detained him with
* mirthful recreations ? Elfe why roams he not through the cool Ihades ?
' Perhaps, the heart-fick lover is unable through weaknefs to advance
* even a ftep !' — So faying, fhe raifed her eyes ; and, feeing her damfel'
return filent and mournful, unaccompanied by Ma'dhava, fhe was
VOL. I. 3 R alarmed
474 Gl'TAGO'VINDA ; OR,
alarmed even to plnenfy ; and, as if flie a£tually beheld Kim in the arms
of a rival, fhe thus dcfcribed the vifion which overpowered her intellect.
* Yes ; in habiliments becoming the war of love, and with treffes
' waving like flowery banners, a damfel^ more alluring than Ra'dha', en-
' joys the conqueror of Madhu. Her form is transfigured by the touch
' of her divine lover ; her garland quivers over her fwelling bofom ; her
' face like the moon is graced with clouds of dark hair, and trembles,
' while ikz quaffs the nedtareous dew of his lip ; her bright ear-rings
' dance over her cheeks, which they irradiate ; and the fmall bells on her
' girdle tinkle as fhe moves- Bafhful at firft, ihe fmiles at length on her
' embracer, and -expreffes her joy with inarticulate murmurs ; while fhe
* floats on the waves of defire, and clofes her eyes dazzled with the
' blaze of approaching Ca'ma : and now this heroine in love's warfare
' falls exhaufted and vanquifhed by the refiftlefs Mura'ri, but alas ! in
* my bofom prevails the flame of jealoufy, and yon moon, which difpels
' the forrow of, others, increafes mine. See again, where xht foe of
' MuRA, fports in yon grove on the bank of the Yamuna ! See, how he
' kiffes the lip of my rival, and imprints on her forehead an ornament of
' pure mufk, black as the young antelope on the lunar orb ! Now, like
* the hufband of Reti, he fixes white bloffoms on her dark locks, where
' they gleam like flafhes of lightning among the curled clouds. On her
' breafts, ^ike two firmaments, he places a firing of gems like a radiant
' conftcUation : he binds on her arms, graceful as the ftalks of the water-
* lily, and adorned with hands glowing like the petals of its flower, a
* bracelet of fapphires, which refemble a clufter of bees. Ah"! fee, how
' he ties round her waifl: a rich girdle illumined with golden bells, which
' feem to laugh, as they tinkle, at the inferior brightnefs of the leafy
' garlands, which lovers hang on their bowers to propitiate the God of
* Defire. He places her foft foot, as he reclines by her fide, on his
^ ardent bofom, and flains it with the ruddy hue of Ydvaca. Say, my
* friend.
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA. 4-^5
friend, why pafs I my nights in this tangled foreft without joy, and
without hope, while the faithlefs brother of Haladhera clafps my
rival in his arms ? Yet why, my companion, fhouldft thou mourn,
though my perfidious youth has difappointed me ? What offence is it
of thine, if he fport with a crowd of damfels happier than I ? Mark,
how my foul, attradled by his irrefiftible charms, burfts from its mortal
frame, and rufhes to mix with its beloved. S&e, whom the God enjoys,
crowned with Jy Ivan Jlowers, fits carelefsly on a bed of leaves with Him,
whofe wanton eyes refemble blue water-lilies agitated by the breeze.
She feels no flame from the gales of Malaya with Him, whofe words
are fweeter than the water of life. She derides the fhafts of foul-born
Ca'ma, with Him, whofe lips are like a red lotos in full bloom. She
is cooled by the moon's dewy beams, while fhe reclines with Him,
whofe hands and feet glow like vernal flowers. No female companion
deludes her, while fhe fports with Him, whofe vefture blazes like tried
gold. She faints not through excefs of pafllon, while fhe carefles that
youth, who furpaflTes in beauty the inhabitants of all worlds. O gale,
fcented with fandal, who breathefl: love from the regions of the fouth,
be propitious but for a moment : when thou hafl: brought my beloved
before my eyes, thou may eft: freely waft away my foul. Love, with
eyes like blue water-lilies, again aflails me and triumphs ; and, while
the perfidy of my beloved rends my heart, my female friend is my foe,
the cool breeze fcorches me like a flame, and the nedar-dropping moon
is my poifon. Bring difeafe and death, O gale of Malaya I Seize my
fpirit, O God with five arrows ! I afk not mercy from thee : no more
will I dwell in the cottage of my father. Receive me in thy azure
waves, O fiflier of Yam A, that the ardour of my heart may be allayed !'
Pierced by the arrows of love, llie pafl'ed the night in the agonies of
defpair, and at early dawn thus rebuked her lover, whom fhe faw lying
proflrate before her and imploring her forgivenefs.
' Alas !
476 ■ Gl'TAGO'VINDA ; OR,
■' Alas ! alas! Go^ Ma'dhava, depart, O Ce'sava ; /peak not the lan'
"* giiage of guile ; follow her, O lotos-eyed God, follow her, who difpels thy
* care. Look at his eye half-opened, red with continued waking through
* the pleafurable night, yet fmiling ftill with afFedion for my rival ! Thy
' teeth, O cerulean youth, are azure as thy complexion from the kifles,
* which thou haft imprinted on the beautiful eyes of thy darling graced
' with dark blue powder ; and thy limbs marked v/ith pundtures in love's
' warfare, exhibit a letter of conqueft written on polifhed fapphires with
' liquid gold. That broad bofom, ftained by the bright lotos of her
* foot, difplays a vefture of ruddy leaves over the tree of thy heart,
* which trembles within it. The preflure of her lip on thine wounds
* me to the foul. Ah ! how canft thou aiTert, that we are one, fmce
' our fenfations differ thus widely ? Thy foul, O dark-limbed god, fhows
' its blacknefs externally. How couldft thou deceive a girl who relied
' on thee ; a girl who burned in the fever of love ? Thou roveft in
* woods, and females ai'e thy prey : what wonder ? Even thy childifh
* heart was malignant ; and thou gaveft death to the nurfe, who would
* have given thee milk. Since thy tendernefs for me, of which thefe
' forefts ufed to talk, has now vaniihed, and fmce thy breaft, reddened
* by the feet of my rival, glows as if thy ardent paffion for her were
' burfting from it, the fight of thee, O deceiver, makes me (ah ! muft I
* fay it ?) blufh at my own affection,'
Having thus inveighed againft her beloved, fhe fat overwhelmed in
grief, and filently meditated on his charms ; when her damfel foftly ad-
dreffed her.
' He is gone : the light air has wafted him away. What pleafure
' now, my beloved, remains in thy manfion ? Continue not, rcfentful
* "woman, thy indignation againft the beautiful ^ a! unAY A. Why fliouldft
' thou render vain thofe round fmooth vafes, ample and ripe as the fweet
' fruit
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA. /^^'^'^
* fruit of yon Td.a-xxtt ? How often and how recently have I faid :
** forfake not the blooming Heri ?" Why fitteft thou fo mournful?
' Why weepeft thou with diftradion, when the damfels are laughing
* around thee ? Thou haft formed a couch of foft lotos-leaves : let thy
* darling charm thy fight, while he repofes on it. Afflidt not thy foul
* with extreme angulfh ; but attend to my words, which conceal no
* guile. Suffer Ce'SAVA to approach: let him fpeak with exquifite
* fweetnefs, and diflipate all thy forrows. If thou art harfh to him, who
* is amiable ; if thou art proudly filent, when he deprecates thy wrath
* with lowly proftrations ; if thou fhoweft averfion to him, who loves
* thee paffionately; if, when he bends before thee, thy face be turned con-
* temptuoufly away ; by the fame rule of contrariety, the duft of fandal-
* wood, which thou haft fprinkled, may become poifon ; the moon, with
* cool beams, a fcorching fun ; the frefh dew, a confuming flame ; and
' the fports of love be changed into agony.'
Ma'dhava was not abfent long : he returned to his beloved ; whofe
cheeks were heated by the fultry gale of her fighs. Her anger was
diminifhed, not wholly abated ; but fhe fecretly rejoiced at his return,
while the ftiades of night alfo were approaching, fhe looked abafhed at
her damfel, while He, with faultering accents, implored her forgivenefs.
* Speak but one mild word, and the rays of thy fparkling teeth will
* difpel the gloom of my fears. My trembling lips, like thirfty Cha-
* coras^ long to drink the moon-beams of thy cheek. O my darlings who
*■ art naturally fo tender-hearted^ abandon thy caufelefs indignation. At this
* moment the fame of defre confwnes my heart : Oh ! grant me a draught
* of honey from the lotos of thy mouth. Or, if thou beeft inexorable, grant
' me death from the arrows of thy keen eyes ; make thy arms my chains ;
* and punifh me according to thy pleafure. Thou art my life ; thou art
' my ornament ; thou art a pearl in the ocean of my mortal birth : oh !
*be
478 GI'TAGO'VINDA ; OR,
* be favourable now, and my heart fliall eternally be grateful. Thine
' eyes, which nature formed like blue water-lilies, are become, through
' thy refentment, like petals of the crimfon lotos : oh ! tinge with their
' effulgence thefe my dark limbs, that they may glow like the fhafts of
' Love tipped with flowers. Place on my head that foot like a frefh
* leaf, and fhade me from the fun of my paflion, whofe beams I am un-
* able to bear. Spread a firing of gems on thofe two foft globes ; let the
' golden bells of thy zone tinkle, and proclaim the mild edidl of love.
' Say, O damfel with delicate fpeech, fhall I dye red with the juice of
' alaSlaca thofe beautiful feet, which will make the full-blown land-lotos
* blufh with fhame ? Abandon thy doubts of my heart, now indeed flut-
' tering through fear of thy difpleafure, but hereafter to be fixed wholly
* on thee ; a heart, which has no room in it for another : none elfe can
* enter it, but Love, the bodilefs God. Let him wing his arrows ; let
' him wound me mortally; decline not, O cruel, the pleafure of feeing
* me expire. Thy face is bright as the moon, though its beams drop the
* venom of maddening defire : let thy nedtareous lip be the charmer, who
* alone has power to lull the ferpent, or fupply an antidote for his poifon.
' Thy filence afflids me : oh ! fpeak with the voice of mufick, and let
* thy fweet accents allay my ardour. Abandon thy wrath, but abandon.
* not a lover, who furpaffes in beauty the fons of men, and who kneels
' before thee, O thou moft beautiful among women. Thy lips are a
' Bandhujiva-^ovftx ; the luflre of the Madhuca beams on thy cheek ;
* thine eye outfhines the blue lotos ; thy nofe is a bud of the Tila ; the
* CwWa-blofTom yields to thy teeth : thus the flowery-fhafted God bor-
* rows from thee the points of his darts, and fubdues- the univerfe.
* Surely, thou defcendeft from heaven, O flender damfel, attended by a
' company of youthful goddeffes j and all their beauties are collected
' in thee.'
He fpake ; and, feeing her appeafed by his homage, flew to his bower,
clad
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA 479
clad in a gay mantle. TTie night now veiled all vifible obje£ls ; and the
damfel thus exhorted Ra'dha', while (he decked her with beaming
ornaments.
* Follow, gentle '^a'dii\ca\ follow the foe ^Madhu : his difcourfe
* was elegantly compofed of fweet phrafes ; he proftrated himfelf at thy
* feet ; and he now hallens to his delightful couch by yon grove of
*• branching Vanjulas. Bind round thy ankle rings beaming with gems ;
' and advance with mincing fteps, like the pearl-fed Marala. Drink
■* with ravifhed ears the foft accents of Heri ; and feaft on love, while
"* the warbling Cocilas obey the mild ordinance of the flower-darting God.
* Abandon delay : fee, the whole aflembly of flender plants, pointing to the
* bower with fingers of young leaves agitated by the gale, make fignals for
* thy departure. Afk thofe two round hillocks, which receive pure dew-
* drops from the garland playing on thy neck, arid the buds on whofe top
* ftart aloft with the. thought of thy darling ; afk, and they will tell, that thy
* foul is intent on the warfare of love : advance, fervid warrior, advance
* with alacrity, while the found of thy tinkling waift-bells fliall reprefent
* martial mufick. Lead with thee fome favoured maid ; grafp her hand
* with thine, whofe fingers are long and fmooth as love's arrows : march ;
* and, with the noife of thy bracelets, proclaim thy approach to the
* youth, who will own himfelf thy flave : " She will come ; fhe will
*' exult on beholding me ; fhe will pour accents of delight ; fhe will
" enfold me with eagei* arms; fhe will melt with affection:" Such are
* his thoughts at this moment ; and, thus thinking, he looks through the
* long avenue ; he trembles ; he rejoices ; he burns ; he moves from
* place to place ; he faints, when he lees thee not coming, and falls in
* his gloomy bower. The night now drefles in habiliments fit for feerecy,
■* the many damfels, who haften to their places of affignation : fhe fets
* oft' with blacknefs their beautiful eyes ; fixes dark Tamdla-XQZXQ?, behind
* their ears ; decks their locks with the deep azure of water-lilies, and
* fprinkles
480 • GITAGO'VINDA; OR,
* fprinkles mufk on their panting bofoms. ' The nodurnal iky, black aa
' the touchftone, tries now the gold of their affedion, and is marked
' with rich hnes from the flaihes of their beauty, in which they furpafs
* the brighteft CaJJjmirians.'
Ra'dha', thus incited, tripped though the foreft ; but fhame over-
powered her, when, by the Hght of innumerable gems, on the arms, the
feet, and the neck of her beloved, fhe faw him at the door of his flowery
manfion : then her damfel again addrefled her with ardent exultation^
* Enter, fweet Ra'dha' the bower of Heri : feek delight, O thou,
* whofe bofom laughs with the foretaflie of happinefs. Enter, fweet
' Ra'dha', the bower graced with a bed of Asoca-\t2i\t&: feek delight,
' O thou, whofe garland leaps with joy on thy breaft. Enter, fweet
'Ra'dha', the bower illumined with gay bloflbms ; feek delight, O
' thou, whofe limbs far excel them in foftnefs. Enter, O Ra'dha', the
* bower made cool and fragrant by gales from the woods of Malaya : feek
* delight, O thou, whofe amorous lays are fofter than breezes. Enter,
' O Ra'dha', the bower fpread with leaves of twining creepers: feek
* delight, O thou, whofe arms have been long inflexible. Enter,
' O Ra'dha', the bower, which refounds with the murmur of honey-
' making bees : feek delight, O thou, whofe embrace yields more exqui-
' fite fweetnefs. Enter, O Ra'dha', the bower attuned by the melodious
* band of Cocilas : feek delight, O thou, whofe lips, which outfhine the
* grains of the pomegranate, are embellifhed, when thou fpeakeft, by the
' brightnefs of thy teeth. Long has he home thee in his mind ; and
* now, in an agony of defire, he pants to tafte ne(5tar from thy lip. Deign
* to reftore thy flave, who will bend before the lotos of thy foot, and
* prefs it to his irradiated bofom ; a flave, wha acknowledges himfelf
* bought by thee for a fingle glance from thy eye, and a tofs of thy
* difdainful eye-brow.'
She
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'VA. 481
She ended; and Ra'dha' with timid joy, darting her eyes on Go'-
ViNDA, while fhe mufically founded the rings of her ankles and the bells
of her zone, entered the myftic bower of her only beloved. There Jhe
beheld her Ma'dh ava, who delighted in her alone ; who Jo long had Jighed
for her embrace ; and whofe countenance then gleamed with excej/ive rap-
ture : his heart was agitated by her fight, as the waves of the deep are
afFed:ed by the lunar orb. His azure breaft glittered with pearls of un-
blemifhed luftre, like the full bed of the cerulean Yamuna, interfperfed
with curls of white foam. From his graceful waift, flowed a pale yellow
robe, which refembled the golden duft of the water-lily, fcattered over its
blue petals. His paffion was inflamed by the glances of her eyes, which
played like a pair of w^ater-birds with azure plumage, that fport near a
full-blown lotos on a pool in the feafon of dew. Bright ear-rings, like
two funs, difplayed in full expanfion the flowers of his cheeks and lips,
which gliftened with the liquid radiance of fmiles. His locks, inter-
woven with bloflbms, were like a cloud variegated with moon-beams ;
and on his forehead fhone a circle of odorous oil, extradled from the
fandal of Malaya, like the moon juft appearing on the dufky horizon ;
while his whole body feemed in a flame from the blaze of unnumbered
gems. Tears of tranfport gufhed in a ftream from the full eyes of
Ra'dha', and their watery glances beamed on her befl: beloved. Even
fhame, which before had taken its abode in their dark pupils, was itfelf
afhamed and departed, when the fawn-eyed Ra'dha', gazed on the
brightened face of Crishna, while fhe paffed by the foft edge of his
couch, and the bevy of his attendant nymphs, pretending to fl:rike the
gnats from their -cheeks in order to conceal their fmiles, warily retired
from his bower.
Go'viNDA, feeing his beloved cheerful and ferene, her lips fparkling
with fmiles, and her eye fpeaking defire, thus eagerly addrefled her ;
while fhe carelefsly reclined on the leafy bed flrewn with foft bloflbms.
VOL. I. 3 s ' Set
482 GI'TAGO'VINDA ; OR
' Set the lotos of thy foot on this azure bofom ; and let this couch be
* vid:orious over all, who rebel againft love. Give fi^ort rapture^ fweet
' Ra'dha', to Na'ra'ya'n, thy adorer. I do thee homage ; I prefs
* with my blooming palms thy feet, weary with fo long a walk. O that
' I were the golden ring, that plays round thy ankle ! Speak but one
' gentle word ; bid nedar drop from the bright moon of thy mouth.
* Since the pain of abfence is removed, let me thus remove the thin veil
' that envioufly hides thy charms. Bleft fhould I be, if thofe raifed
' globes were fixed on my bofom, and the ardour of my paffion allayed.
' O ! fuffer me to quaff the liquid blifs of thofe lips ; reftore with their
* water of life thy flave, who has long been lifelefs, whom the fire of
' feparation has confumed. Long have thefe ears been afflicted, in thy
' abfence, by the notes of the Cocila : relieve them with the found of thy
' tinkling waift-bells, which yield mufick, almofl equal to the melody of
* thy voice. Why are thofe eyes half clofed ? Are they alhamed of fee-
' ing a youth, to whom thy carelefs refentment gave anguilh ? Oh ! let
' afflidion ceafe : and let ecftafy drown the remembrance of forrow.'
In the morning fhe rofe difarrayed, and her eyes betrayed a night
without flumber ; when the yellow-robed God, who gazed on her with
tranfport, thus meditated on her charms in his heavenly mind : ' Though
' her locks be diffufed at random, though the luflre of her lips be faded,
' though her garland and zone be fallen from their enchanting ftations,
' and though fhe hide their places with her hands, looking toward me
' with bafhful filence, yet even thus difarranged, Ihe fills me with ex-
* tatic delight.' But Ra'dha', preparing to array herfelf, before the
company of nymphs could fee her confufion, fpake thus with exultation
to her obfequious lover.
* Place, O fon of Yadu, with fingers cooler than fandal-wood, place a-
' circlet of mulk on this breaft, which refembles a vafe of confecrated
* water,
THE SONGS OF JAYADE'V^A. 433
* water, crowned with frefli leaves, and fixed near a vernal bower, to
* propitiate the God of Love. Place, my darling, the glofly powder,
* which would make the blackeft bee envious, on this eye, whofe glances
* are keener than arrows darted by the hufband of Ret i. Fix, O ac-
' complifhed youth, the two gems, which form part of love's chain, in
* thefe ears, whence the antelopes of thine eyes may run downwards and
* fport at pleafure. Place now a frefh circle of mufk, black as the lunar
* fpots, on the moon of my forehead ; and mix gay flowers on my trelTes
* with a peacock's feathers, in graceful order, that they may wave like
* the banners of Ca'ma. Now replace, O tender hearted, the loofe or-
* naments of my vefture ; and refix the golden bells of my girdle on
* their deftined ftation, which refembles thofe hills, where the God with
* five fhafts, who deftroyed Sambar, keeps his elephant ready for
« battle.'
While (he fpake, the heart of Yadava triumphed ; and, obeying her
fportful behefts, he placed mufky fpots on her bofom and forehead, dyed
her temples with radiant hues, embelllflied her eyes with additional
blacknefs, decked her braided hair and her neck with frefh garlands, and
tied on her wrifts the loofened bracelets, on her ankles the beamy rings,
and round her waift the zone of bells, that founded with ravifhing
melody.
Whatever is delightful in the modes of mufick, whatever is divine In
meditations on Vishnu, whatever Is exqulfite in the fweet art of love,
whatever Is graceful in the fine ftrains of poetry, all that let the happy
and wife learn from the fongs of Jayade'va, whofe foul is united with
the foot of Na'ra'yan. May that Heri be your fupport, who ex-
panded himfelf Into an infinity of bright forms, when, eager to gaze
with myriads of eyes on the daughter of the ocean, he difplayed his
great charader of the all-pervading deity, by the multiplied refledtions of
his
484
his divine perfon in the numberlefs gems on the many heads of the king
of ferpents, whom he chofe for his couch ; that Heri, who removing
the lucid veil from the bofom of Pedma', and fixing his eyes on the de-
licious buds, that grew on it, diverted her attention by declaring that,
when (he had chofen him as her bridegroom near the fea of milk, the
difappointed hufband of Pervati drank in defpair the venom, which
dyed his neck azure !
REMARKS
REMARKS
ON
THE ISLAND OF
HINZUAN OR JOHANNA,
By The PRESIDENT.
XTIINZUAN (a name, which has been gradually corrupted into A?:*-
ztiame, Anjuan^ Juafiny, and Johanna J has been governed about two
centuries by a colony of Arabs, and exhibits a curious inftance of the
flow approaches toward civilization, which are made by a fmall com-
munity, with many natural advantages, but with few means of improv-
ing them. An account of this African ifland, in which we hear the
language and fee the manners of Arabia, may neither be uninterefting in
itfelf, nor foreign to the objeds of inquiry propofed at the inftitution of
our Society.
Gn Monday the 28th oi July 1/83, after a voyage, in the Crocodile, of
ten weeks and two jlays from the rugged iflands of Cape Verd, our eyes
were delighted with a profpedt fo beautiful, that neither a painter nor a
poet could perfeftly reprefent it, and fo cheering to us, that it can juftly
be conceived by fuch only, as have been in our preceding fituation. It
was the fun rifing in full fplendour on the ifle of Maycita (as the feamen
called it) which we had joyfully diftinguifhed the preceding afternoon
by
486 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
by- the height of its peak, and which now appeared at no great dlftance
from the windows of our cabin ; while Hinzuan^ for which we had fo
long panted, w^as plainly difcernible a-head, where its high lands pre-
fented themfelves with remarkable boldnefs. The weather was fair ; the
water, fmooth ; and a gentle breeze drove us eafily before dinner-time
round a rock, on which the Brilliant ftruck juft a year before, into a
commodious road*, where we dropped our anchor early in the evening:
we had feen Mohila^ another fifter ifland, in the courfe of the day.
The frigate was prefently furrounded with canoes, and the deck foon
crowded with natives of all ranks, from the high-born chief, who walhed
linen, to the half-naked flave, who only paddled. Moft of them had let-
ters of recommendation from Englijlmien^ which none of them were able
to read, though they fpoke Englifi intelligibly ; and fome appeared vain
of titles, which our countrymen had given them in play, according to
their fuppofed ftations : we had Lords, Dukes^ and Princes on board,
foliciting our cuftom and importuning us for prefents. In fad they
were too fenfible to be proud of empty founds, but juftly imagined, that
thofe ridiculous titles would ferve as marks of diftindion, and, by at-
tracting notice, procure for them fomething fubftantial. The only men
of real confequence in the ifland, whom wx faw before we landed, were
the Governor Abdullah, fecond coufm to the king, and his brother
Alwi', with their feveral fons ; all of whom will again be particularly
mentioned : they underftood Arabick^ feemed zealots in the Mohamme-
dan faith, and admired my copies of the Alkoran ; fome verfes of which
they read, whilft Alwi' perufed the opening of another Arabian manu-
fcript, and explained it in Englijlo more accurately than could have been
expeded.
The next morning fhowed us the ifland in all its beauty ; and the
* Lat. 12°. lo'. 47". S. Long. 44°. 25'- s"* E- by the Mafter.
fcene
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 48/
fcene was {o dlverfified, that a diftind: view of it could hardly have been
exhibited by the bed pencil : you muft, therefore, be fatisfied with a
mere defcription, written on the very fpot and compared attentively with
the natural landfcape. We were at anchor in a fine bay, and before us
was a vail amphitheatre, of which you may form a general notion by
pi£luring in your minds a multitude of hills infinitely varied in fize and
figure, and then fuppofing them to be thrown together, with a kind of
artlefs fymmetry, in all imaginable pofitions. The back ground was a
feries of mountains, one of which is pointed, near half a mile perpendi-
cularly high from the level of the fea, and little more than three miles
from the fhore : all of them were richly clothed with wood, chiefly
fruit-trees, of an exquifite verdure. I had feen many a mountain of a
ftupendous height in W^ks and Sififftrla?id^ but never faw one before,
round the bofom of which the clouds were almoft continually rolling,
w^hile its green fummit rofe flourifhing above them, and received from
them an additional brightnefs. Next to this diftant range of hills was
another tier, part of which appeared charmingly verdant, and part rather
barren ; but the contraft of colours changed even this nakednefs into a
beauty : nearer ftill were innumerable mountains, or rather cliffs, which
brought down their verdure and fertility quite to the beach ; fo that every
fliade of green, the fweeteft of colours, was difplayed at one view by land
and by water. But, nothing conduced more to the variety of this en-
chanting profpe<3:, than the many rows of palm-trees, efpecially the tall
and graceful Arecas^ on the fhores, in the valleys, and on the ridges of
hills, where one might almoft fuppofe them to have been planted regu-
larly by defign. A more beautiful appearance can fcarce be conceived,
than fuch a number of elegant palms in fuch a fituation, with luxuriant
tops, like verdant plumes, placed at juft intervals, and flaowing between
them part of the remoter landfcape, while they left the reft to be fupplied
by the beholder's imagination. The town of Matfamudb lay on our
left, remarkable at a diftance for the tower of the principal mofque,
which
488 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
which was built by Hali'mah, a queen of the ifland, from whom the
prefent king is defcended : a Uttle on our right was a fmall town, called
Bantcini. Neither the territory of Nice, with its olives, date-trees, and
cypreffes, nor the ifles of Hieres, with their delightful orange-groves,
appeared fo charming to me, as the view from the road of Hinzuan ;
w^hich, neverthelefs, is far furpalTed, as the Captain of the Crocodile
allured us, by many of the iflands in the fouthern ocean. If life were
not too fliort for the complete difcharge of all our refpedive duties, pub-
lick and private, and for the acquifition even of necelTary knowledge
in any degree of perfedion, with how much pleafure and improvement
might a great part of it be fpent in admiring the beauties of this wonder-
ful orb, and contemplating the nature of man in all its varieties !
We haftened to tread on firm land, to which we had been fo long dif-
ufed, and went on {hore, after breakfaft, to fee the town, and return the
Governor's vifit. As we walked, attended by a crowd of natives, I fur-
prized them by reading aloud an Arabick infcription over the gate of a
mofque, and ftill more, when I entered it, by explaining four fentences,
which were written very diftindlly on the wall, fignifying, " that the
" world was given us for our own edification, not for the purpofe of raifing
*' fumptuous buildings ; life, for the difchai-ge of moral and religious
" duties, not for pleafurable indulgences; wealth, to be liberally "be-
" flowed, not avaricioufly hoarded ; and learning, to produce good
" adions, not empty difputes." We could not but refped: the temple
even of a falfe prophet, in which we found fuch excellent morality : we
faw nothing better among the Romijh trumpery in the church at Madera.
When we came to Abdui^lah's houfe, we were conducted through a
fmall court-yard into an open room, on each fide of which was a large
and convenient fofa, and above it a high bed-place in a dark recefs, over
which a chintz counterpoint hung down from the ceiling : this is the
general form of the beft rooms in the ifland j and mofl of the tolerable
houfes
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 439
houfes have a fimilar apartment on the oppofite fide of the court, that
there may be at all hours a place in the ihade for dinner or for repofe.
We were entertained with ripe dates from Temen, and the milk of cocoa-
nuts ; but the heat of the room, which feemed acceflible to all, who
chofe to enter it, and the fcent of mufk or civet, with which it was per-
fumed, foon made us defirous of breathing a purer air ; nor could I be
detained long by the Arabick manufcripts, which the Governor pro-
duced, but which appeared of little ufe, and confequently of no value,
except to fuch as love mere curlofities : one of them, indeed, relating to
the penal law of the Mohammedans^ I would gladly have purchafed at a
juft price ; but he knew not what to afk, and I knew, that better books
on that fubjed might be procured in Bengal. He then offered me a
black boy for one of my Alkorans^ and prefled me to barter an Indian
drefs, which he had feen on board the fhip, for a cow and calf: the
golden flippers attracted him moft, fmce his wife, he faid, would like to
wear them ; and, for that reafon, I made him a prefent of them ; but
had deftined the book and the robe for his fuperior. No high opinion
could be formed of 6'«_yj^</ Abdullah, who feemed very eager for gain,
and very fervile where he expe<^ed it.
Our next vifit was to Shaikh Sa'lim, the king's eldefl fon ; and, if we
had feen him firft, the flate of civilization in Hinzuan would have ap-
peared at its loweft ebb : the worfl EngliJ]:) hackney in the worft flable
is better lodged, and looks more princely than this heir apparent ; but,
though his mien and apparel were extremely favage, yet allowance
fhould have been made for his illnefs ; which, as we afterwards learned,
was an abfcefs in the fpleen, a diforder not uncommon in that country,
and frequently cured, agreeably to the Arabian pra(£tice^ by the a£lual
cautery. He was inceffantly chewing pieces of the Areca-nut with
fhell-lime ; a cuflom borrowed, I fuppofe, from the Indians^ who greatly
improve the compofition with fpices and betel-leaves, to which they for-
VOL. I. 3 T merly
490 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
merly added camphor : all the natives of rank chewed it, but not, I
think, to fo great an excefs. Prince Sa'lim from time to time gazed at
himfelf with complacency in a piece of broken looking-glafs, which was
glued on a Imall board ; a fpecimen of wretchednefs, which we obferved
in no other houfe ; but many circumflances convinced us, that the ap-
parently low condition of his royal highnefs, who was not on bad terms
with his father, and feemed not to want authority, proceeded wholly from
his avarice. His brother Hamdullah, who generally refides in the
town of Domo'ni, has a very different character, being efteemed a man of
worth, good fenfe, and learning : he had come, the day before, to Maf-
Jamudo, on hearing that an Englifi frigate was in the road ; and I, having
gone out for a few minutes to read an Arabick infcription, found him, on
my return, devouring a manufcript, which I had left with fome of the
company. He is a Kdd'), or Mohammedan judge ; and, as he feemed to
have more knowledge than his countrymen, I was extremely concerned,
that I had fo little converfation with him. The king. Shaikh Ahmed,
has a younger fon, named Abdullah, whofe ufual refidence is in the
town of JVdn\ which he feldom leaves, as the ftate of his health is very
infirm. Since the fucceffion to the title and authority of Sultan is not
unalterably fixed in one line, but requires confirmation by the chiefs of
the ifland, it is not improbable, that they may hereafter be conferred on
prince Hamdullah.
A little beyond the hole, in which Sa'lim received us, was his -6<?r<jw,
or the apartment of his women, which he permitted us all to fee, not
through politenefs to ftrangers, as we believed at firft, but, as I learned
afterwards from his own lips, in expeftation of a prefent : we faw only
two or three miferablc creatures with their heads covered, while the
favourite, as we fuppofed, flood behind a coarfe curtain, and fhowed
her ankles under it loaded with filver rings ; which, if fhe was capable
of reflection, fhe muft have confidered as glittering fetters rather than
ornaments ;
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 4g j
ornameats ; but a rational being would have preferred the condition of a
wild beaft, expofed to perils and hunger in a foreft, to the fplendid
mifery of being wife or miftrefs to Sa'lim.
Before we returned, Alwi' was defirous of fhowing me his books;
but the day was too far advanced, and I promifed to vifit him fome
other morning. The governor, however, prevailed on us to fee his
place in the country, where he invited us to dine the next day : the walk
was extremely pleafant from the town to the fide of a rivulet, which
formed in one part a fmall pool very convenient for bathing, and
thence, through groves and alleys, to the foot of a hill ; but the dining-
room was little better than an open barn, and was recommended only by
the coolnefs of its fhade. Abdullah would accompany us on our re-
turn to the fhip, together with two Muftis^ who fpoke Arabick indiffer-
ently, and feemed eager to fee all my manufcripts ; but they were very
moderately learned, and gazed with ftupid wonder on a fine copy of the
Hamdfah and on other colledions of ancient poetry.
Early the next morning a black meflenger, with a tawny lad as his
interpreter, came from prince Sa'lim ; who, having broken his perfpec-
tive-glafs, wlfhed to procure another by purchafe or barter: a polite
anfwer was returned, and fteps taken to gratify his wifhes. As we on
our part expreffed a defire to vifit the king at Domoni^ the prince's met-
fenger told us, that his mafter would, no doubt, lend us palanquins
(for there was not a horfe In the Ifland) and order a fufficlent number of
his vaflals to carry us, whom we might pay for their trouble, as we
thought juft : we commlffioned him, therefore, to alk that favour, and
begged, that all might be ready for our excurfion before funrlfe ; that
we might efcape the heat of the noon, which, though it was the middle
of winter, we had found exceflive. The boy, whofe name was Combo
Madi, ftayed with us longer than his companion: there was fomething
in
492 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
in his look fo ingenuous, and in his broken EnglifJj fo fimple, that we
encouraged him to continue his innocent prattle. He wrote and read
Arabick tolerably well, and fet down at my defire the names of feveral
towns in the ifland, which, He firft told me, was properly called Hin-
zuan. The fault of begging for whatever he liked, he had in common
with the governor and other nobles ; but hardly in a greater degree : his
firft petition for fome lavender-water was readily granted ; and a fmall
bottle of it was fo acceptable to him, that, if we had fuffered him, he
%vould have kiffed our feet ; but it was not for himfelf that he rejoiced
fo extravagantly : he told us with tears ftarting from his eyes, that his
mother would be pleafed with it, and the idea of her pleafure feemed to
fill him with rapture : never did I fee filial afFedtion more warmly felt
or more tenderly and, in my opinion, unaffededly exprefled ; yet this
boy was not a favourite of the officers, who thought him artful. His
mother's name, he faid, was Fa'tima ; and he importuned us to vifit
her J conceiving, I fuppofe, that all mankind muft love and admire her :
we promifed to gratify him ; and, having made him feveral prefents,
permitted him to return. As he reminded me of Aladdin in the Ara-
bian tale, I defigned to give him that name in a recommendatory letter,
which he prefTed me to write, inftead of St. Domingo, as fome EurO'
pean vifiter had ridiculoufly called him ; but, fince the allufion would not
have been generally known, and fince the title of Alau'ldw^ or Eminence
in Faith^ might have offended his fuperiors, I thought it advifablc for
him to keep his African name. A very indifferent dinner was prepared
for us at the houfe of the Governor, whom we did not fee the whole
day, as It was the beginning of Ramadan^ the Mohammedan lent, and he
was engaged in his devotions, or made them his excufe i but his eldeft
fon fat by us, while we dined, together with Mu's A, who was employed,
jointly with his brother Husain, as purveyor to the Captain of the
frigate.
Having
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 493
Having obferved a very elegant flirub, that grew about fix feet high
in the court-yard, but was not then in flower, I learned with pleafure,
that it was hinna^ of which I had read fo much in Arabian poems, and
which European Botanifts have ridiculoufly named Lawfonia : Mu'sA
bruifed fome of the leaves, and, having moiftened them with water, ap-
plied them to our nails, and the tips of our fingers, which in a fhort time,
became of a dark orange-fcarlet. I had before conceived a different idea
of this dye, and imagined, that it was ufed by the Arabs to imitate the
natural rednefs of thofe parts in young and healthy perfons, which in all
countries muft be confidered as a beauty : perhaps a lefs quantity of
hinna^ or the fame differently prepared, might have produced that effedt.
The old men in Arabia ufed the fame dye to conceal their grey hair,
■while their daughters were dying their lips and gums black, to fet off
the whitenefs of their teeth : fo univerfal in all nations and ages are per-
fonal vanity, and a love of difguifing truth ; though in all cafes, the far-
ther our fpecies recede from nature, the farther they depart from true
beauty : and men at leaft Ihould difdain to ufe artifice or deceit for any
purpofe or on any occafion : if the women of rank at Paris^ or thofe in
London who wifh to imitate them, be inclined to call the Arabs barba-
rians ; let them view their own head-drefles and cheeks in a glafs, and,
if they have left no room for blulhes, be inwardly at leafl afhamed of
their cenfure.
In the afternoon I walked a long way up the mountains in a iviading
path amid plants and trees no lefs new than beautiful, and regretted ex-
ceedingly, that very few of them were in blolTom ; as I fliould then have
had leifure to examine them. Curiofity led me from hill to hill ; and I
came at kill to the fources of a rivulet, which we had paffed near the
fhore, and from which the fhip was to be fupplied with excellent water. I
faw no birds on the mountains but Guinea-fowl^ which migtit have been
eafily caught : no ini'et^s were troublefome to me, but mofquitos ; and I
had
494 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
had no fear of venomous reptiles, having been aflured, that the air was
too pure for any to exift in it ; but I was often unwillingly a caufe of
fear to the gentle and harmlefs lizard, who ran among the flirubs. On
my return I miffed the path, by which I had afcended ; but, having met
fome blacks laden with yams and plantains, I was by them diredted to
another, which led me round, through a charming grove of cocoa-trees,
to the Governor's country-feat, where our entertainment was clofed by
a fillabub, which the Englijh had taught the Mufelmans to make for
them.
We received no anfwer from Sa'lim ; nor, indeed, expelled one ;
fmce we took for granted, that he could not but approve our intention of
vifiting his father ; and we went on fhore before funrife, in full expedla-
tion of a pleafant excurfion to Domoni : but we were happily difap-
polnted. The fervants, at the prince's door, told us coolly, that their
mafler was indifpofed, and, as they believed, afleep ; that he had given
them no orders concerning his palanquins, and that they durft not dif-
turb him. Alwi' foon came to pay us his compliments ; and was fol-
lowed by his eldeft fon, Ahmed, with whom we walked to the gardens
of the two princes Sa'lim and Hamdullah ; the fituation was naturally
good, but wild and defolate; and. In Sa'lim's garden, which we entered
through a miferable hovel, we faw a convenient bathing-place, well-built
with ftone, but then in great diforder, and a fhed, by way of fummer-
houfe, like that under which we dined at the governor's, but fmaller and
lefs neat. On the ground lay a kind of cradle about fix feet long, and
little more than one foot in breadth, made of cords twifted in a fort of
clumfy network, with a long thick bambu fixed to each fide of it : this,
we heard with furprize, was a royal palanquin, and one of the vehicles,
in which we were to have been rocked on men's fhoulders over the
mountains. I had much converfation with Ahmed, whom I found in-
telligent and communicative : he told me, that feveral of his countrymen
compofed
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 405
compofed fongs and tunes ; that lie was himielf a pafllonate lover of
poetry and mufick ; and that, if we would dine at his houfe, he would
play and fing to us. We declined his invitation to dinner ; as we had
made a conditional promife, if ever we pafled a day at Maffamudo, to
eat our curry with Bana GiBU, an honell man, of whom we purchafed
eggs and vegetables, and to whom fome EngliJJ.^man had given the title of
lordy which made him extremely vain : we could, therefore, make Sayyad
Ahmed only a morning vifit. He fung a hymn or two in Arabic ky
and accompanied his drawling, though pathetick, pfalmody with a kind
of mandoline, which he touched with an awkward quill : the Inftrument
was very imperfeft, but feemed to give him delight. The names of the
ftrings were written on it in Arabian or Indian figures, fimple and com-
pounded ; but I could not think them worth copying. He gave Cap-
tain Williamson, who wiflied to prefent fome literary curioiities to
the library at Dublin, a fmall roll containing a hymn in Arabick letters,
but in the language of Mombaza^ which was mixed with Arabick ; but it
hardly deferved examination, fince the ftudy of languages has little in-
trinfick value, and is only ufeful as the inftrument of real knowledge,
which we can fcarce expe<3; from the poets of the Mozambique, Ahmed
would, I believe, have heard our European airs (I always except French
melody) with rapture, for his favourite tune was a common Irifi jig,
with which he feemed wonderfully affedted.
On our return to the beach I thought of vifiting old Alwi', according
to my promife, and prince Sa'lim, whofe charadler I had not then dif-
covered : I refolved for that purpofe to ftay on fhore alone, our dinner
with GiBU having been fixed at an early hour. Alwi' fhowed me his
manufcripts, which chiefly related to the ceremonies and ordinances of
his own religion ; and one of them, which I had formerly feen iii Europe^
was a colledion of fublime and elegant hymns in praife of MoHAMMED,
with explanatory notes in the margin : I requefted him to read one of
them
4qQ remarks on the island
them after the manner of the Arabs, and he chanted it in a ftrain by no
means unpleafmg ; but I am perfuaded, that he underftood it very imper-
fedly. The room, which was open to the ftreet, was prefently crowded
with vifiters, moft of whom were Mufti's, or Expounders of the Law ;
and Alwi' defirous, perhaps, to difplay his zeal before them at the ex-
penfe of good breeding, directed my attention to a paflage in a commen-
tary on the Koran, which I found levelled at the Chrifiiatis. The com-
mentator, having related with fome additions (but, on the whole, not in-
accurately) the circumftances of the temptation, puts this fpeech into the
mouth of the tempter : " though I am unable to delude thee, yet I will
" raiflead, by thy means, more human creatures, than thou wilt fet
" right." * Nor was this menace vain (fays the Mohammedan writer),
' for the inhabitants of a region many thoufand leagues in extent are ftill
' fo deluded by the devil, that they impioufly call FsA the fon of God :
' heaven preferve us, he adds, from blafpheming Chrijlians as well as
' blafpheming Jews.'' Although a religious difpute with thofe obftinate
zealots would have been unfeafonable and fruitlefs, yet they deferved, I
thought, a flight reprehenfion, as the attack feemed to be concerted
among them. ' The commentator, faid I, was much to blame for pafling
* fo indifcriminate and hafty a cenfure : the title, which gave ycoir legif-
* lator, and gives you, fuch offence, was often appUed in "Judea, by a
' bold figure agreeable to the Hebrew idiom, though unufual in Arabick,
* to angels, to holy men, and even to all mankind, who are commanded to
* call God their Father ; and in this large fenfe, the Apoftle to the Ro-
' mans calls the eled the children of God, and the Messiah ihe frjl-
* born among many brethren ; but the words only begotten are applied
' tranfcendently and incomparably to him alone* ; and, as for me, •'vho
* believe the fcriptures, which you alfo profefs to believe, though you af-
* fert without proof that we have altered them, I cannot refufe him an
* Rom. 8. 29. See i John 3. i. 11. Barrow, 231, 232, 251.
• appeliatiori,
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 497
* appellation, though far furpaffing our reafon, by which he is diftin-
' guiflied in tlie Gofpel ; and the believers in Muhammed, who exprefsly
' names him the MeJJiahy and pronounces him to have been born of a
* virgin, which alone might fully juftify the phrafe condemned by this
* author, are themfelves condemnable for cavilling at words, when they
* cannot obje£l to the fubftance of our faith confidently with their own.'
The Mufelmans had nothing to fay in reply ; and the converfation was
changed.
I was aftonifhed at the queftions, which Alwi' put to me concerning
the late peace and the independence of America ; the feveral powers and
refources of Britain and France, Spain and Holland-, the character and
fuppofed views of the Emperor ; the comparative ftrength of the Ruffian^
Imperial, and Qthman armies, and their refpedtive modes of bringing
their forces to adion : I anfwered him without referve, except on the
ftate of our pofTeffions in India ; nor were my anfwers loft ; for I obfen-ed,
that all the company were varioufly afFedled by them ; generally with
amazement, often with concern ; efpecially when I defcribed to them the
great force and admirable difcipline of the Atijirian army, and the ftupid
prejudices of the Turks, whom nothing can induce to abandon their old
Tartarian habits, and expofed the weaknefs of their empire in Africa, and
even in the more diftant provinces of AJia. In return he gave me clear,
but general, information concerning the government and commerce of
his ifland : " his country, he faid, was poor, and produced few articles of
" trade ; but, if they could get money, lohich they now preferred to play-
" things (thofe were his words), they might eafily, he added, procure
*' foreign commodities, and exchange them advantageoufly with their
*' neighbours in the illands and on the continent : thus with a little
" money, faid he, we purchafe mufkets, powder, balls, cutlafles, knives,
" cloths, raw cotton, and other articles brought from Bombay, and with
" thofe we trade to Madagafcar for the natural produce of the country
VOL. I. 3 u " or
408 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
" or for (dollars, with which the French buy cattle, honey, butter, and fo
" forth, in that ifland. With gold^ which we receive from your fliips,
" we can procure elephants' teeth from the natives of Mozambique, who -
" barter them alfo for ammunition and bars of iron, and the Portugueze
" in that country give us cloths of various kinds in exchange for our
" commodities ; thofe cloths we difpofe of lucratively in the three neigh-
" bouring iflands ; whence we bring rice, cattle, a kind of bread-fiuit,
" which grows in Comara, ^n^Jlaves^ which we buy alfo at other places,
" to which we trade j and we carry on this traffick in our own veflels."
Here I could not help expreffing my abhorrence of their Jlave-trade\
and afked him by what law they claimed a property in rational beings ;
fmce our Creator had given our fpecies a dominion, to be moderately
exercifed, over the hearts of the field and the fowls of the air, but none
to man over man. " By no law, anfwered he, unlefs neceffity be a law;
*' There are nations in Madagafcar and in Africa, who know neither
" God, nor his Prophet, 'nor Moses, nor David, nor the Messiah-:
" thofe nations are in perpetual war, and take many captives ; whom, if
" they could not fell, they would certainly kill. Individuals among them
" are in extreme poverty, and have numbers of children ; who, if they
** cannot be difpofed of^ muft perifh through hunger, together with their
" miferable parents : by purchafmg thefe wretches, we preferve theii?
" lives, and, perhaps, thofe of many others, |whom our money relieves,
" The fum of the argument is this : if we buy them, they wall live ; if
" they become valuable fervants, they will live comfortably ; but, if they
" are not fold, they muft die miferably." ' There may be, faid I, fuch'
' cafes ; but you fallacioufly draw a general conclufion from a few par-
* ticular inftances ; and this is the very fallacy, which, on a thoufand
* other occafions, deludes mankind. It is not to be doubted, that a conftant
' and gainful trafEck in human creatures foments war, in which captives
* are, always made, and keeps up that perpetual enmity, which you
* pretend
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 499
* pretend to be the caufe of a practice in itfelf reprehenfible, "while in
' truth it is its effeSi ; the fame traffick encourages lazinefs in fome
* parents, who might in general fupport their families by proper induf-
* try, and feduces others to ftifle their natural feelings : at moft your
* redemption of thofe unhappy children can amount only to a perfonal
' contract, implied between you, for gratitude and reafonable fervice on
* their part, for kindnefs and humanity on yours ; but can you think
* your part performed by difpofmg of them againfl their wills with as
* much indifference, as if you were felling cattle ; efpecially as they might
' become readers of the Kordn^ and pillars of your faith ?' " The law, faid
" he, forbids our felling them, when they are believers in the Prophet ;
" and little children only are fold ; nor they often, or by all mafters."
* You, who believe in Muhammed, faid I, are bound by the fpirit and
' letter of his laws to take pains, that they alfo may believe in him ;
* and, if you negledt fo important a duty for fordid gain, I do not fee
* how you can hope for profperity in this world, or for happinefs in the
' next.' My old friend and the Muftts afTented, and muttered a few
prayers ; but probably forgot my preaching, before many minutes had
pafled.
So much time had flipped away in this converfation, that I could make
but a fliort vifit to prince Sa'lim ; and my view in vifiting him was to
fix the time of our journey to Domoni as early as poffible on the next
morning. His appearance was more favage than ever ; and I found him
in a difpofitlon to complain bitterly of the EngliJJj : " No acknowledge-
" ment, he faid, had been made for the kind attentions of himfelf and
" the chief men in his country to the ofiicers and people of the Brilliant^
" though a whole year had elapfed fince the wreck." I really wondered
at the forgetfulnefs, to which alone fuch a negled: could be imputed ;
and alTured him, that I would exprefs my opinion both in Bengal and in
letters to England. " We have little, faid he, to hope from letters ; for,
" when
500 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
" when we have been paid with them inftead of money, and have fhown
" them on board your fhips, we have commonly been treated with dif-
" dain, and often with imprecations." I affured him, that either thofe
letters muft have been written coldly and by very obfcure perfons, or
fhown to very ill-bred men, of whom there were too many in all na-
tions ; but that a few inftances of rudienefs ought not to give him a
general prejudice againft our national character. " But you, faid he,
" are a wealthy nation ; and we are indigent : yet, though all our groves
" of cocoa-trees, our fruits, and our cattle, are ever at your fervice, you
" always try to make hard bargains with us for what you chufe to dif-
" pofe of, and frequently will neither fell nor give thofe things, which
" w€ principally want." " To form, faid I, a juft opinion of Englijhmen^
" you muft vifit us in our own ifland, or at leaft in India j here we are
" ftrangers and travellers : many of us have no defign to trade in any
" country, and none of us think of trading in Hinzuan^ where we ftop
" only for refrelhment. The clothes, arms, or inftruments, which you
" may want, are comiBonly neceflary or convenient to us ; but, if Sayyad
" Alwi' or his fons were to be ftrangers in our country, you would
" have no reafon to boaft of fuperior hofpitality." He then fhowed me,
a fecond time, a part of an old filk veft with the ftar of the order of the
Thiftle, and begged me to explain the motto ; exprefling a wifh, that the
order might be conferred on him by the King of England in return for
his good offices to the Englijh. I reprefented to him the impoffibility of
his being gratified, and took occafion to fay, that there was more true
dignity in their own native titles, than in thofe oi prince^ duke, and lord^
which had been idly given them, but had no conformity to their man-
ners or the conftitution of their government.
This converfation being agreeable to neither of us, I changed it by
defiring, that the palanquins and bearers might be ready next morning
as early as poffible : he anfwered, that his palanquins were at our fervice
for
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 56I
fdr nothing, but that we muft pay him ten dollars for each fet of bearers ;
that it was^the ftated price; and that Mr. Hastings had paid it, when
he went fo vifit the king. This, as I learned afterwards, was falfe ; but,
in all events, I knew, that he would keep the dollars himfelf, and give
nothing to the bearers, who deferved them better, and whom he would
c<3mpel to leave their cottages, and toll for his profit. " Can you
" imagine, I replied, that we would employ four and twenty men to
" bear us fo far on their fhoulders without rewarding them amply ? But
** fmce they are free men (fo he had aflured me) and not your flaves,
" we will pay them in proportion to their diligence and good behaviour ;
" and it becomes neither your dignity nor ours to make a previous
." bargain." I fhowed him an elegant copy of the Koran^ which I
deftined for his father, and defcribed the reft of my prefent ; but he
coldly afked, " if that was all :" had he been king, a purfe of dry dollars
would have given him more pleafure than the fineft or holieft manu-
fcript. Finding him, in converfing on a variety of fubjedls, utterly void
of intelligence or principle, I took my leave, and faw him no more ; but
promifed to let him know for certain whether we fhould make our in-
tended excurfion.
We dined in tolerable comfort, and had occafion, in the courie of the
day, to obferve the manners of the natives in the middle rank, who are
called Banas^ and all of whom have flaves conftantly at work for them :
we vifited the mother of Comboma'di, who feemed in a ftation but
little raifed above indigence ; and her hulband, who was a mariner, bar-
tered an Arabick treatife on aftronomy and navigation, which he had
read, for a fea compafs, of which he well knew the ufe.
In the morning I had converfed with two very old Arabs of Yemen^
who had brought fome articles of trade to Hinzuan ; and in the after-
noon I met another, who had come from Majkat (where at that time
there
502 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
there was a civil war) to purchafe, if he could, an hundred ftand of
arms. I told them all that I loved their nation, and they returned my
compliments with great warmth ; efpecially the two old men, who were
near fourfcore, and reminded me of Zohair and Ha'reth.
So bad an account had been given me of the road over the mountains,
that I difluaded my companions from thinking of the journey, to which
the Captain became rather difmclined ; but, as I wifhed to be fully ac-
quainted with a country, which I might never fee again, I wrote the
next day to Sa'lim, requefting him to lend me one palanquin and to
order a fufficient number of men : he fent me no written anfwer; which
I afcribe rather to his incapacity than to rudenefs; but the Governor,
with Alwi' and two of his fons, came on Jjoard in the evening, and
faid, that they had feen my letter ; that all ftiould be ready ; but that
I could not pay lefs for the men than ten dollars. I faid I would pay
more, but it fhould be to the men themfelves, according to their be-
haviour. They returned fomewhat diflatisfied, after I had played at
chefs with Alwi's younger fon, in whofe manner and addrefs there
was fomething remarkably pleafing.
Before funrife on the 2d of Augujl I went alone on fhore, with a
fmall bafket of fuch provifions, as I might want in the courfe of the day,
and with fome cufhions to make the prince's palanquin at leaft a tolera-
ble vehicle ; but the prince was refolved to receive the dollars, to which
his men were entitled ; and he knew, that, as I was eager for the jour-
ney, he could prefcribe his own terms. Old Alwi' met me on the
beach, and brought excufes from Sa'lim ; who, he faid, was indifpofed.
He conduced me to his houfe ; and feemed rather defirous of perfuading
me to abandon my defign of vifiting the king \ but I allured him, that,
if the prince would not fupply me with proper attendants, I would walk
to Domdni with my own fervants and a guide. ' Shaikh Sa'lim, he faid.
* was
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 503
^ was mlferably avaricious ; that he was afliamed of a kinfman with fuch
* a difpofition ; but that he was no lefs obftinate than covetous ; and
• that, without ten dollars paid in hand, it would be impoflible to pro-
* cure bearers.' I then gave him three guineas, which he carried, or
pretended to carry, to Sa'lim, but returned without the change, alledg-
ing that he had no filver, and promifing to give me on my return the
few dollars that remained. In about an hour the ridiculous vehicle was
brought by nine fturdy blacks, who could not fpeak a word oi Arabic k ;.
fb that I expeded no information concerning the country, through which
I was to travel ; but Alwi' affifted me in a point of the utmoft confe-
quence. ' You cannot go, faid he, without an interpreter ; for the king
' fpeaks only the language of this ifland ; but I have a fen'ant, whofe
' name is Tumu'ni, a fenfible and worthy man, who underftands Eng~
• lijh, and is much efteemed by the king ; he is known and valued all
' over Hinzuan. This man fhall attend you ; and you will foon be fen-
' fible of his worth.'
Tumu'ni defired to carry my bafket, and we fet out with a profpeit
of fine weather, but fome hours later than I had intended. I walked, by
the gardens of the two princes^ to the fkirts of the town, and came to a
little village confifting of feveral very neat huts made chiefly with the
leaves of the cocoa-tree 5 but the road a little farther was fo ftony, that I
fat in the palanquin, and was borne with perfedt fafety over. fome rocks:
I then defired my guide to alfure the men, that I would pay them liberally ;
but the poor peafants, who had been brought from their farms on the
hills, were not perfedlly acquainted with the ufe of money, and treated
my promife with indifference.
About five miles from Matfamudo lies the town of Wani^ where Shaikh
Abdullah, who has already been mentioned, ufually refides : I faw it
at a diftance, and it feemed to be agreeably fuuated. When I had paffed
the
501 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
the rocky part of the road, I came to a ftony beach, where the fea ap-
peared to have loft lome ground, fince there was a fine fand to the left,
and beyond it a beautiful bay, which refembled that of Weymouth^ and
feemed equally convenient for bathing ; but it did not appear to me, that
the ftones, over which I was carried, had been recently covered with
water. Here I faw the frigate, and, taking leave of it for two days,
turned from the coaft into a fine country very neatly cultivated, and con-
fifting partly of hillocks exquifitely green, partly of plains, which were
then in a gaudy drefs of rich yellow bloifoms : my guide informed me,
that they were plantations of a kind of vetch, which was eaten by the
natives. Cottages and farms were interfperfed all over this gay cham-
paign, and the whole fcene was delightful ; but it was foon changed for
beauties of a different fort. We defcended into a cool valley, through
which ran a rivulet of perfedly clear water ; and there, finding my vehicle
uneafy, though from the laughter and merriment of my bearers I con-
cluded them to be quite at their cafe, I bade them fet me down, and
walked before them all the reft of the way. Mountains, clothed with
fine trees and flowering fhrubs, prefented themfelves on our afcent from
the vale ; and we proceeded for half an hour through pleafant wood-
walks, where I regretted the impoflibility of loitering a while to examine
the variety of new bloflbms, which fucceeded one another at every ftep,
and the virtues, as well as names, of which feemed familiar to Tumu'ni.
At length we defcended into a valley of greater extent than the former :
a river or large wintry torrent ran through it, and fell down a fteep de-
clivity at the end of it, where it feemed to be loft among rocks. Cattle
were grazing on the banks of the river, and the huts of their owners ap-
peared on the hills : a more agreeable fpot i had not before feen even in
Swijferland or MerionethJJnre ; but it was followed by an affemblage of
natural beauties, which I hardly, expected to find in a little illand twelve
degrees to the fouth of the Line. I was not fufficiently pleafed with my
folitary journey to difcover charms, which had no adual exiftence, ^n^
the
OF niNZUAN OR JOHANNA. 505
the firfl: effe£l of the contraft between St. J ago and Hinzuan had ceafed ;
but, without any difpofition to give the landfcape a high colouring, I
may truly fay, what I thought at the time, that the whole country,
which next prefented itfelf, as far furpalled Eineronville or Blenheim^
or any other imitations of nature, which I had feen in France or
England, as the fineft bay furpafles an artificial piece of water. Two
very high mountains, covered to the fummit with the richeft verdure,
were at foi»e diftance on my right hand, and feparated from me by
meadows diverfified with cottages and herds, or by vallies refounding
with torrents and water-falls ; on my left was the fea, to which there
were beautiful openings from the hills and woods ; and the road was a
fmooth path naturally winding through a foreft of fpicy flirubs, fruit-
trees, and palms. Some high trees were fpangled with white blolToms
equal in fragrance to orange-flowers : my guide called them Monongos, but
the day was declining fo tail, that it was impoffible to examine them :
the variety of fruits, flowers, and birds, of which I had a tranfient view
in this magnificent garden, would have fupplied a naturalifl with amufe-
ment for a month ; but I faw no remarkable infed, and no reptile of any
kind. The woodland was diverfified by a few pleafant glades, and new
profpeiSs were continually opened : at length a noble view of the fea
burft upon me unexpedledly ; and,^ having pafTed a hill or two, we came
to the beach, beyond which were feveral hills and cottages. We turned
from the Ihore ; and, on the next eminence, I faw the town of Dorndni at
a little diftance below us : I was met by a number of natives, a few of
whom fpoke Arabick, and thinking it a convenient place for repofe, I
fent my guide to apprize the king of my intended vifit. He returned in
half an hour with a polite melTage ; and I walked into the town, which
feemed large and populous. A great crowd accompanied me, and I was
conducted to a houfe built on the fame plan with the beft houfes at
Matfamudo : in the middle of the court-yard flood a large Monongo-
tree, which perfumed the air; the apartment on the left was empty j
VOL. I. 3 X and.
506 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
and, in that on the right, fat the king on a fofa or bench covered with
an ordinaiy carpet. He role, when I entered, and, grafping my hands,
placed me near him on the right ; but, as he could Ipeak only the lan-
guage of Ilinzuan^ I had recourfe to my friend Tumu'ni, than whom
a readier or more accurate interpreter could not have been found. I
prefented the king with a very handfome Indian drefs of blue filk with
golden flowers, which had been worn only once at a mafquerade, and
with a beautiful copy of the Koran, from which I read a fgw verfes to
him : he took them with great complacency, and faid, " he wiflied 1
" I had come by fea, that he might have loaded one of my boats with
" fruit and with fome of his fineft cattle. He had feen me, he faid, on
" board the frigate, where he had been, according to his cuftom, in dif-
*' guife, and had heard of me from his fon Shaikb Hamdullah." I
gave him an account of my journey, and extolled the beauties of his
country : he put many queftions concerning mine, and profefl'ed great
regard for our nation. " But I hear, faid he, that you are a magiftrate,
" and confequently profefs peace : why are you armed with a broad
" fword ?" " I was a man, I faid, before I was a magiflrate ; and, if it
" fhould ever happen, that law could not protect me, I muft proted:
" myfelf." He feemed about fixty years old, had a very cheerful
countenance, and great appearance of good nature mixed with a certain
dignity, which diftinguifhed him from the crowd of minifters and officers,
who attended him. Our converfation was interrupted by notice, that
it was the time for evening prayers ; and, when he rofe, he faid : " this
*' houfe is yours, and I will vifit you in it, after you have taken fome
" refreihment." Soon after, his fervants brought a roaft fowl, a rice-
pudding, and fome other difhes, with papayas and very good pome-
granates : my own bafket fupplied the reft of my fupper. The room
was hung with old red cloth, and decorated with pieces of porcelain
and feftoons of EngliJI^ bottles ; the lamps were placed on the ground
in large fea-fhells ; and the bed place was a recefs, concealed by a chintz
hanging.
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 507
hanging, oppofite to the fofa, on which we had been fitting : though it
was not a place that invited repofe, and the gnats were inexpreffibly
troublefome, yet the fatigue of the day procured me very comfortable
flumber. I was waked by the return of the king and his train ; fome
of whom were Arabs ; for I heard one of them fay hcwa rdkid, or he is
Jleeping : there was immediate filence, and I pafTed the night with little
difturbance, except from the unwelcome fongs of the mofquitos. In the
morning all was equally filent and folitary ; the houfe appeared to be de-
ferted ; and I began to wonder what had become of Tumu Ki : he came
at length with concern on his countenance, and told me, that the bearers
had run away in the night ; but that the king, who wifhed to fee me in
another of his houfes, would fupply me with bearers if he could not pre-
vail on me to ftay, till a boat could be fent for. I went immediately to
the king, whom I found fitting on a raifed fofa in a large room, the walls
of which were adorned with fentences from the Kcran in very legible
characters : about fifty of his fubje£ts were feated on the ground in a
femicircle before him ; and my interpreter took his place in the midft
of them. The good old king laughed heartily, when he heard the ad-
venture of the night, and faid : " you will now be my gueft for a
" week, I hope ; but ferioufly if you mull return foon, I will fend into
" the country for fome peafants to carry you." He then apologized
for the behaviour of Shaikh Sa lim, which he had heard from Tu-
mu Ni, vv^ho told me afterwards, that he was much difpleafed with it,
and would not fail to exprefs his difpleafure : he concluded with a long
harangue on the advantage, which the Englijh might derive, from fend-
ing a fhip every year from Bombay to trade with his fubjeCts, and on
the wonderful cheapnefs of their commodities, efpecially of their cow-
ries. Ridiculous as this idea might feem, it fhowed an enlargement
of mind, a defire of promoting the intereft of his people, and a fenfe
of the benefits arifing from trade, which could hardly have been ex-
pedted from a petty African chief, and which, if he had been fove-
reign
508 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
reign of Yemen, might have been expanded into rational projefts pro-
portioned to the extent of his dominions. I anfwered, that I was
imperfedly acquainted with the commerce of India ; but that I would
report the fubftance of his converfation, and would ever bear teftimony
to his noble zeal for the good of his country, and to the mildnefs with
which he governed it. As I had no inclination to pafs a fecond night
in the ifland, I requefted leave to return without waiting for bearers : he
feemed very fincere in preffing me to lengthen my vifit, but had too
much Arabian politenefs to be importunate. We, therefore, parted ;
and, at the requeft of Tumu'ni, who afTured me that little time would
be loft in fhowing attention to one of the worthieft men in Hinzuan, I
made a vifit to the Governor of the town, whofe name was Mutekka;
his manners were very pleafmg, and he fhowed me fome letters from
the officers of the Brilliant, which appeared to flow warm from the heart,
and contained the ftrongeft eloge of his courtefy and liberality. He in-
fifted on filling my balket with fome of the fineft pomegranates I had
ever feen ; and I left the town, impreffed with a very favourable opinion
of the king and his governor. When I reafcended the hill, attended by
many of the natives, one of them told me in Arabick, that I was going
to receive the higheft mark of diftindlion, that it was in the king's power
to fhow me ; and he had fcarce ended, when I heard the report of a
fingle gun : Shaikh Ahmed had faluted me with the whole of his ord-
nance. I waved my hat, and faid AUar Achar : the people fhouted, and
I continued my journey, not without fear of inconvenience from excef-
five heat and the fatigue of climbing rocks. The walk, however, was
not on the whole unpleafant : I fometimes refted in the valleys, and
forded all the rivulets, which refrefhed me with their coolnefs, and fupplied
me with exquifite water to mix with the juice of my pomegranates, and
occafionally with brandy. We were overtaken by fome peafants, who
came from the hills by a nearer way, and brought the king's prefent of
a cow with her calf, and a ftie-goat with two kids : they had apparently
been
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 509
been feleded for their beauty, and were brought fafe to Bengal. The
profpeds, which had fo greatly delighted me the preceding day, had not
yet loft their charms, though they wanted the recommendation of no-
velty ; but I muft confefs, that the moft delightful objed in that day's
walk of near ten miles was the black frigate, which I difcerned at funfet
from a rock near the Prince's Gardens. Clofe to the town I was met by
a native, who, perceiving me to be weary, opened a fine cocoa-nut,
which afforded me a delicious draught : he informed me, that one of his
countrymen had been punifhed that afternoon for a theft on board the
Crocodile^ and added, that, in his opinion, the punifhment was no lefs
juft, than the offence was difgraceful to his country. The offender, as I
afterwards learned, was a youth of a good family, who had married a
daughter of old Alwi', but, being left alone for a moment in the cabin,
and feeing a pair of blue morocco flippers, could not refift the tempta-
tion, and concealed them fo ill under his gown, that he was dete£led
with the mainer. This proves, that no principle of honour is inftilled
by education into the gentry of this ifland : even Alwi', when he had
obferved, that, " in the month of Ramadan^ it was not lawful to paint
" with hin?ia or to tell lies" and when I afked, whether both were law-
ful all the reft of the year, anfwered, that " lies were innocent, if no
" man was injured by them." TuMUNi took his leave, as well fatif-
fied as myfelf with our excurfion : I told him, before his mafter, that I
transferred alfo to him the dollars, which were due to me out of the three
guineas ; and that, if ever they fhould part, I fhould be very glad to re-
ceive him into my fervice in Ittdia. Mr. Roberts, the mafter of the
fhip, had paffed the day with Sayyad A^iWEVt, and had learned from him
a few curious clrcumftances concerning the government of Hi?izuan ;
which he found to he a monarchy limited by an ariftocracy. The king,
he was told, had no power of making war by his own authority ; but, if
the affembly of nobles, who were from time to time convened by him,
refolved on a war with any of the neighbouring iflands, they defrayed
the
510 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
the charges of it by voluntary contributions, in return for which they
claimed as their own all the booty and captives, that might be taken.
The hope of gain or the want of flaves is ufually the real motive for
fuch enterprizes, and oftenfible pretexts are eafily found : at that very
time, he underftood, they meditated a war, becaufe they wanted hands
for the following harveft. Their fleet confiflred of fixteen or feventeen
fmall veflels, which they manned with about two thoufand five hundred
iflanders armed with muflcets and cutlafles, or with bows and arrows.
Near two years before they had pofTefled themfelves of two towns in
Maydta, which they ftill kept and garrifoned. The ordinary expenfes
of the government were defrayed by a tax from two hundred villages ;
but the three principal towns were exempt from all taxes, except that
they paid annually to the Chief Mufti a fortieth part of the value of all
their moveable property, and from that payment neither the king nor the
nobles claimed an exemption. The kingly authority, by the principles
of their conftitution, was confidered as elective, though the line of fuccef-
fion had not in fad been altered fince the firft eledion of a Sultan. He
was informed, that a wandering Arab^ who had fettled in the ifland, had,
by his intrepidity in feveral wars, acquired the rank of a chieftain, and
afterwards of a king with limited powers ; and that he was the Grand-
father of Shaikh Ahmed : I had been affured that Queen Hali'mah was
his Grand-mother ; and, that he was the fxth king ; but it muft be re-
marked, that the words jedd and jeddah in Arabick are ufed for a male
and female anceflor indefinitely ; and, without a correct pedigree of Ah-
med's family, which I expedted to procure but was difappointed, it
would fcarce be poflible to afcertain the time, when his forefather ob-
tained the higheft rank in the government. In the year lOoo Captain
John Davis, who wrote an account of his voyage, found Maydta go-
verned by a king, and Anfuame, or Hinzudn^ by a queen, who fhowed
him great marks of friendihip : he anchored before the town of Demos
(does he mean Domoni fj which was as large, he fays, as Plymouth j and
he
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 5 1 1
he concludes from the ruins around it, that it had once been a place of
ftrength and grandeur. I can only fay, that I obferved no fuch ruins.
Fifteen years after, Captain Peyton and Sir Thomas Roe touched at
the Comara iflands, and from their feveral accounts it appears, that an old
fultanefs then refided in Hinzuan^ but had a dominion paramount over
all the ifles, three of her fons governing Mohila in her name : if this be
true, SoHAiLi' and the fucceflbrs of Hali'mah muft have loft their in-
fluence over the other iflands ; and, by renewing their dormant claim as
it fuits their convenience, they may always be furnifhed with a pretence
for hoftilities^ Five generations of eldeft fons would account for an
hundred and feventy of the years, which have elapfed, fmce Davis and
Peyton found Hinzican ruled by a fultanefs ; and Ahmed was of fuch
an age, that his reign may be reckoned equal to a generation : it is pro-
bable, on the whole, that Hali'mah was the widow of the firft Arabian
king, and that her mofque has been continued in repair by his defcen-
dants ; fo that we may reafonably fuppofe two centuries to have pafled,
fmce a fmgle yirab had the courage and addrefs to eftablifli in that beau-
tiful ifland a form of government, which, though bad enough in itfelf,
appears to have been adminiftered with advantage to the original inhabi-
tants. We have lately heard of civil commotions in Hinzuan^ which,
we may venture to pronounce, were not excited by any cruelty or vio-
lence of Ahmed, but were probably occafioned by the infolence of an
oligarchy naturally hoftile to king and people. That the mountains in
the Comara iflands contain diamonds, and the precious metals, which are
ftudioufly concealed by the policy of the feveral governments, may be
true, though I have no reafon to believe it, and have only heard It af-
ferted without evidence ; but I hope, that neither an expedation of fuch
treafures, nor of any other advantage, will eVer induce an European
power to violate the firft principles of juftice by afluming the fovereignty
of Hinzuau, which cannot anfwer a better purpofe than that of fupply-
ing our fleets with feafonable refrefliment ; and, although the natives
have
512 REMARKS ON THE ISLAND
have an intereft in receiving us vi-ith apparent cordiality, yet, if we wifli
their attachment to be unfeigned and their dealings juft, we muft fet
them an example of ftridl honefty in the performance of our engage-
ments. In truth our nation is not cordially loved by the inhabitants of
Hinzuan, who, as it commonly happens, form a general opinion from a
few inftances of violence or breach of faith. Not many years ago an
European, who had been hofpitably received and liberally fupported at
Matfamudo, behaved rudely to a young married woman, who, being of
low degree, was walking veiled through a ftreet in the evening : her huf-
band ran to protedl her, and refented the rudenefs, probably with me-
naces, poffibly with adual force ; and the European is faid to have given
him a mortal wound with a knife or bayonet, which he brought, after
the fcuffle, from his lodging. This foul murder, which the law of na-
ture would have juftified the magiftrate in punifhing with death, was re-
ported to the king, who told the governor (I ufe the very words of
Alwi') that " it would be wifer to hufh it up." Alwi' mentioned a
civil cafe of his own, which ought not to be concealed. When he was
on the coaft of Africa in the dominions of a very favage prince, a fmall
European vefTel was wrecked ; and the prince not only feized all that
could be faved from the wreck, but claimed the captaia and the crew as
his flaves, and treated them with ferocious infolence. Alwi' aflured me,
that, when he heard of the accident, he haftened to the prince, fell proC-
trate before him, and by tears and importunity prevailed on him to give
the Europeans their liberty ; that he fupported them at his own expenfe,
enabled them to build another veffel, in which they failed to Hinzum,
and departed thence for Europe or India : he fhowed me the Captain's
promiflbry notes for fums, which to an African trader muft be a con»-
fiderable objed, but which were no price for liberty, fafety, and, per-
haps, life, which his good, though difmterefted, offices had procured. I
lamented, that, in my fituation, it was wholly out of my power to affift
Alwi' in obtaining juftice ; but he urged me to deliver an Arabick
letter
OF HINZUAN OR JOHANNA. 5 13
letter from him, enclofing the notes, to the Governor General, who, as
he faid, knew him well ; and I complied with his requeft. Since it is poi-
fible, that a fubftantial defence may be made by the perfon thus accufed
of injuftice, I will not name either him or the vefTel, which he had com-
manded ; but, if he be living, and if this paper Ihould fall into his hands,
he may be induced to refledl how highly it imports our national honour,
that a people, whom we call favage, but who adminifter to our con-
venience, may have no juft caufe to reproach us with a violation of our
contrads.
VOL I. 3 y
A CONVERSATION
WITH
ABRAM, AN ABYSSINIAN,
CONCERNING
THE Cirr OF GWENBER AND rUE SOURCES OF THE NILE.
By The PRESIDENT.
JtiAVING been informed, that a native of Ahyjjima was in Calcutta^
who fpoke Arabick with tolerable fluency, I fent for and examined him
attentively on feveral fubje£ts, with which he feemed likely to be acquaint-
ed: his anfwers were fo fimple and precife, and his whole demeanour
fo remote from any fufpicion of falfehood, that I made a minute of
his examination, which may not perhaps be unacceptable to the Society.
Gwender^ which Bernier had long ago pronounced a Capital City^
though LuDOLF aflerted it to be only a Military Station., and conje£tured,
that in a few years it would wholly difappear, is certainly, according to
Abram, the Metropolis oi AbyJJinia. He fays, that it is nearly as large
and as populous as Mifr or Kahera, which he faw on his pilgrimage to
Jtrufalem ; that it lies between two broad and deep rivers, named Caha
and Ancrib^ both which flow into the Nile at the difl:ance of about fifteen
days' journey; that all the walls of the houfes are of a red ftone, and the
roofs of thatch ; that the ftreets are like thofe of Calcutta^ but that the
ways,
510 A CONVERSATION WITH
ways, by which' the king pafles, are very fpacious ; that the palace, which
has a piaiftered roof, refembles a fortrefs, and ftands in the heart of the
City ; that the markets of the town abound in pulfe, and have alfo wheat
and barley, but no rice ; that fheep and goats are in plenty among them,
and that the inhabitants are extremely fond of milk, cheefe, and whey,
but that the country people and foldiery make no fcruple of drinking the
blood and eating the raw flefh of an ox, which they cut without caring
whether he is dead or alive ; tliat this favage diet is, however, by no
means general. Almonds, he fays, and dates are not found in his country,
but grapes and peaches ripen theije, and in fome of the diftant provinces,
efpecially at Cdrudar, wine is made in abundance ; but a kind of mead is
the common inebriating liquor of the AbyJJinians. The late King was
l^ilca Mahiit (the firft of which words means root or origin) ^ and the
prefent, his brother Tilca Jerjis, He reprefents the royal forces at Gwen-
der as confiderable, and aflerts, perhaps at random, that near forty thou-
fand horfe are in that ftation : the troops are armed, he fays, with mufkets,
lances, bov\^s and arrows, cimeters, and hangers. The council of ilate
confifts, by his account, of about forty Minifters, to whom almoft all the
executive part of government is committed. He was once in the fervice
of a Vazir, in whofe train he went to fee the fountains of the Nile or
Abey^ ufually called Ahoey^ about eight days' journey from Gwender : he
faw three fprings, one of which rifes from the ground with a great noife,
that may be heard at the diftance of five or fix miles. I fhowed him the
defcription of the Nile by Gregory of Amhara^ which Ludolf has
printed in Ethiopick : he both read and explained it with great facility ;
whilfl I compared his explanation with the Latin verficn, and found it
perfedly exad. He afferted of his own accord, that the defcription was
conformable to all that he had feen and heard in Ethiopia ; and, for that
reafon, I annex it. When I interrogated him on the languages and learn-
ing of his country, he anfwered, that fix or it\t\\ tongues at leaft were
fpoken there ; that the moll elegant idiom, which the King ufed, was the
Amharick \
ABR AM, AN ABYSSINIAN. 517
Amharick ; that the Ethiopick contahied, as it le well known, many Ara-
bick words; that, befides their facred books, as the prophefy of Enoch,
and others, they had hiftories of Abyjfinia and various literary compofi-
tions ; that their language was taught in fchools and colleges, of which
there were feveral in the Metropolis. He laid, that np Abyjjman doubted
the exiftence of the royal prifon called JVahmi?2^ fituated on a very lofty
mountain, in which the fons and daughters of their Kings were confined ;
but that, from the nature of the thing, a particular defcription of it could
not be obtained. " All thefe matters, faid he, are explained, I fuppofe,
" in the writings of Ya ku'b, whom I faw thirteen years ago in Gwen-
" der : he was a phyfician, and had attended the King's brother, who
" was alfo a Fazir^ in his laft illnefs : the prince died ; yet the king loved
" Ya'ku'b, and, indeed, all the court and people loved him: the king
" received him in his palace as a gueft, fupplied him with every thing,
" that he could want ; and, when he went to fee the fources of the NiJe
*' and other curiofities (for he was extremely curious), he received every
" poflible afliftance and accommodation from the royal fiivour : he un-
" derftood the languages, and wrote and coUedled many books, which
" he carried with him." It was impoffible for me to doubt, efpecially
when he defcribed the perfon of Ya ku b, that he meant James Bruce,
Efq. who travelled in the drefs of a Syrian phyfician, and probably
aflumed with judgement a name well known in Abyjjinia : he is ftill
revered on Mount Sinai for his fagacity in difcovering a fpring, of which
the monaftery was in great need ; he was known at Jedda by Mi'r
Mohammed Hussain, one of the moft intelligent Mahommedans \\\
India ; and I have feen him mentioned with great regard in a letter from
an Arabian merchant at Mokbd. It is probable, that he entered Abyjjinia
by the way of Mnjuwwa^ a town in the pofleflion of the Mufelmans, and
returned through the defert mentioned by Gregory in his defcription
of the Nile. We may hope, that Mr. Bruce will publilh an account
of his interefting travels, with a vcrfion of the book of Enoch, which
no
518
no man but himlelf can give us with fidelity. By the help of AbyJJinian
records, great light may be thrown on the hiftory of Yeme7i before the
time of Mu HAMMED, fince it is generally known, that four Ethtop
kings fucceflively reigned in that country, having been invited over by
the natives to oppofe the tyrant Dhu' Nawa's, and that they were in
their turn expelled by the arms of the Himyartck princes with the aid of
Anu SHIR VAN king of Perfia^ who did not fail, as it ufually happens, to
keep in fubjedion the people, whom he had confented to relieve. If the
annals of this period can be reftored, it muft be through the hiftories of
Abyjinia, which will alfo corred the many errors of the bed Aftatick
writers on the 'Niky and the countries which it fertilifes.
ON
ON
THE COURSE OF THE NILE.
JL H E A7/<?, which the AbyJJinians know by the names of Abey and
Alaivy^ or the Giant, guflies from feveral fprhigs at a place, called Sucut^
lying on the higheft part of Dengald near Gojjdm^ to the weft of Bajem-
dir^ and the lake of Dara or Wed\ into which it runs with fo ftrong and
rapid a current, that it mixes not with the other waters, but rides or
fwims, as It were, above them.
All the rains, that fall in Abyjpnia and defcend in torrents from the
liills, all ftreams and rivers, fmall and great, except the Handzo, which
u-afhes the plains of Hengdt, and the HawdJJ} which flows by Dewdr and
Fetgdr^ are collected by this king of waters, and, like vafTals, attend his
inarch : thus enforced he rufhes, like a hero exulting in his ftrength, and
haftens .to fertllife the land of Egypt, on which no rain falls. We muft
except a!fo thofe Ethiopean rivers, which rife in countries bordering on
the ocean, as the kingdoms of Cmnhat, Gurdjy, Wdfy, Ndriyah, Gdfy,
IVej, and Zinjiro, whofe waters are difembogued into the fea.
When the Ala'ivy has paffed the Lake, it proceeds between Gojjdm and
Bajemdir, and, leaving them to the weft and eaft, purfues a dired: courfe
towards Amhdrd, the fklrts of which it bathes, and then turns again to
the weft, touching the borders of Walaka ; whence it rolls along Mugdr
and Shmvai, and,' pafhng Bazdwd and Gongd, defcends into the lowlands
of Shankila, the country of the Blacks : thus it forms a fort of fpiral
roiuid the province of Gojjdm, which it keeps for the moft part on
its right.
Here
520 ON THE COURSE OF THE NILE.
Here It bends a little to the eaft, from which quarter, before it reaches
the diftridls of Senndr^ it receives two large rivers, one called Tacazz)\
which runs from Tegri^ and the other, Givangue^ which comes from
Deml>ctd,
After it has vifited Senndr, it wafhes the land of Dongoldy and pro-
ceeds thence to Niibia^ where it again turns eaftward, and reaches a
country named Abrim^ where no vefTels can be navigated, by reafon of
the rocks and crags, which obftrudt the channel. The inhabitants of
Sentidr and Nubia may conftantly drink of its water, which lies to the
eaft of them like a ftrong bulwark j but the merchants of Abyjjmia^
who travel to Egypt^ leave the Nile on their right, as foon as they have
pafTed Nubia., and are obliged to traverfe a defert of fand and gravel, in
which for fifteen days they find neither wood nor v»-ater ; they meet it
again in the country of Re'if or Upper Egypt^ where they find boats on
the river, or ride on its banks, refrefhing themfelves with its falutary
ftreams.
It is aflerted by fome travellers, that, when the Alawy has palTed Senndr
and Dongoldy but before it enters Nubia ^ it divides itfelf ; that the great
body of water flows entire into Egypt^ where the fmaller branch (the
Niger J runs weftward, not fo as to reach Barbary, but towards the coun-
try of Alivdhy whence it rufhes into the great fea. The truth of this fadl
I have verified, partly by my own obfervation, and partly by my inquiries
among intelligent men ; whofe anfwers feemed the more credible, becaufe,
if fo prodigious a mafs of water were to roll over Egypt with all its
wintry increafe, not the land only, but the houfes, and towns, of th«
Egyptians mufl be overflowed.
or*
ON
THE INDIAN GAME OF CHESS.
By The PRESIDENT.
J. F evidence be required to prove that chefs was invented by the Hindus^
we may be fatisfied with the teftimony of the Perfians ; who, though as
much inclined as other nations to appropriate the ingenious inventions of
a foreign people, unanimoufly agree, that the game was imported from
the weft of India^ together with the charming fables ofVisHNUSARMAN,
in the fixth century of our era ; it feems to have been immemorlally
known in Hindujlan by the name of Chaturanga^ that is, the four angas^
or members^ of an army, which are fald in the Amaracojha to be hajlyas-
luarai' hapadiitam, or elephants^ horfes, chariots^ and foot-foUiers ; and,
in this fenfe, the word is frequently ufed by Epick poets in their defcrip-
tions of real armies. By a natural corruption of the pure Sanfcrit word,
it was changed by the old Perjians Into Chatrang^ but the Arabs^ who
foon after took poffeflion of their country, had neither the initial nor final
letter of that word in their alphabet, and confequently altered It further
into Shatranj^ which found Its way prcfently into the modern PerJiaJi,
and at length into the dlaleds of India, where the true derivation of the
name is known only to the learned : thus has a very fignificant word in
the facred language of the Brdhmans been transformed by fucceflive
changes into axedrez, fcacchi, echecs, chefs, and, by a whimfical concur-
rence of circumftances, given birth to the EngUp^ word check, and even a
name to the Exchequer of Great Britain. The beautiful fimplicity and
extreme perfeQion of the game, as it is commonly played in Europe and
VOL. I. 3 z Af'^^
522 ON THE INDIAN GAME OF CHESS.
Afia^ convince me, that it was invented by one effort of fome great
genius ; not completed by gradual improvements, but formed, to ufe the
phrafe of Italian criticks, by the Jirji intention ; yet of this fimple game,
fo exquifitely contrived, and fo certainly invented in India^ I cannot find
any account in the claffical writings of the Brahmans. It is, indeed, con-
fidently afferted, that Sanfcrit books on Chefs exift in this country, and,
if they can be procured at Battdres, they will afTuredly be fent to us : at
prefent I can only exhibit a defcription of a very ancient Indian game
of the fame kind ; but more complex, and, in my opinion, more modern,
than the fimple Chefs of the Perjians. This game is alfo called Chatu-
ranga, but, more frequently Cbaturdj), or the/our Kings^ fince it is played
by four perfons reprefenting as many princes, two allied armies combating
on each fide : the defcription is taken from the Bhwwijhya Purdn., in-
which Yudhisht'hir is reprefented converfing with Vya'sa, who
explains at the king's requeft the form of the fi£litious warfare and the
principal rules of it : " having marked eight fquares on all fides, fays the
" Sage, place the red army to the eaft, the green to the fouth, the yellow
" to the weft, and the black to the north : let the elephant ftand on the
" left of the king ; next to him, the horfe ; then, the boat ; and, before
" them all, ionr foot-foldiers ; but the boat muft be placed in the angle ©f
" the board." From this paflage it clearly appears, that an army, with
its four angd s^ muft be pkced on each fide of the board, fince an elephant
could not ftand, in any other pofition, on the left hand of each king ; and'
Ra'dhaca'nt informed me, that the board confifted, like ours, oi fixty-
foiir fquares, half of them occupied by the forces, and half, vacant: he
added, that this game is mentioned in the oldeft law-books, and that it
■was invented by the wife of Ra'van, king oi Lanca^ in order to amufe
him with an image of war, while his metropolis was elofely befieged by
Ra'ma in the fecond age of the v>rorld. H^ had not heard the ftory
told by Firdausi near the clofe of the Shahndmah, and it wa& probably,
carried, into Perfia from Cdnyacurja by Bgrzu, i\\Q favourite phyjicicin,
thence
ON THE INDIAN GAME OF CHESS, 523
thence called Vaidyapriya^ of the great Anu'shirava'n ; but he faid,
that the Brahmmis of Gaur, or Bengal^ were once celebrated for fuperior
Ikill in the game, and that his father, together with his fpiritual preceptor
Jaganna't'h, now living at Tribefii, had inftru£ted two young Brdh-
mans in all the rules of it, and had fent them to yayanagar at the requefl
of the late Raja, who had liberally rewarded them. A pAp, or boat^ is
fubftituted, we fee, in this complex game for the rat'h^ or armed chariot^
which the Bengalefe pronounce rofh, and which the Perjians changed
into rokh, whence came the rook of fome European nations ; as the vierge
andyo/of the French are fuppofed to be corruptions ofjerz andj^/, the
prime minijier and elephant of the Perjians and Arabs: it were vain to
feek an etymology of the word rook in the modern Perfian language ;
for, in all the paffages extracted from Firdausi and Ja'mi, where rokh
is conceived to mean a hero^ or 2^ fabulous bird^ it fignifies, I believe, no
more than a cheek or a face ; as in the following defcription of a pro-
ceflion in Egypt : " when a thoufand youths, like cyprefles, box-trees,
** and firs, with locks as fragrant, cheeks as fair, and bofoms as delicate,
*' as lilies of the valley, were marching gracefully along, thou wouldli
*' have faid, that the new fpring was turning his face (not, as Hyde
" tranflates the words, carried on rokhs) from ftation to flation ;" and,
as to the battle of the duwdzdeh rokh, which D'Herbelot fuppofes to
mean douze preux chevaliers, I am ftrongly inclined to think, that the
phrafe only fignifies a combat of twelve perfons face to face, or fix on a fide.
I cannot agree with my friend Ra'dha'ca NT, that ■\ Jlnp is properly
introduced in this imaginary warfare inftead of a chariot, in which the
old Indian warriours conftantly fought ; for, though the king might be
fuppofed to fit in a car, fo that the four anga' s would be complete, and
though it may often be neceflary in a real campaign to pafs rivers or lakes,
yet no river is marked on the htdian, as it is on the Chinefe, chefs-board,
and the intermixture of Ihips with horfes, elephants, and infantry em-
battled on a plain, is an abfurdity not to be defended. The ufe of dice
may,
524 OX THE INDIAN GAME OF CHESS.
may, perhaps, be juftified in a reprefentation of war, in which Jbrtane
has unqueftionably a great Ihare, but it feems to exclude chefs from the
rank, which has been afligned to it, among the fciences, and to give the
game before us the appearance of ichyi, except that pieces are ufed
openly, inftead of cards which are held concealed : neverthelefs we find,
that the moves in the game defcribed by Vya'sa were to a certain degree
regulated by chance ; for he proceeds to tell his royal pupil, that, " if
" ch2qjie be thrown, the king or a paion muft be moved ; if quatre^ ths
" elephant ; if trois^ the horfe ; and if deux^ the boatT
He then proceeds to the moves : " the king pafles freely on all fides
" but over one fquare only ; and with the fame limitation, the pawn
" moves, but he advances ftraight forward, and kills his enemy through
" an angle ; the elephant marches in all diredlions, as far as his driver
" pleafes ; the horfe runs obliquely, traverfing three fquares ; and the
**■ JJ.np goes over two fquares diagonally." The elephant, we find, has
the powers of our qiieen^ as we are pleafed to call the minijler^ or general^
of the Perfians, and the fiip has the motion of the piece, to which we
give the unaccountable appellation of biJJiop^ but with a reftridion, which
muft greatly leffen his value.
The bard next exhibits a few general rules and fuperficial diretSions
for the condudl of the game : " the pawns and th^Jhip both kill and may
*' be voluntarily killed ; while the kingy the elephant^ and the horfe may
" flay the foe, but cannot expofe themfelves to be flain. Let each player
" preferve his own forces with extreme care, fecuring his king above
" all, and not facrificing a fuperior, to keep an inferior, piece." Here
the commentator on the Purdn obferves, that, the horje, who has the
choice of eight moves from any central pofition, muft be preferred to the
Jhipy who has only the choice of four ; but this argument would not
have equal weight in the common game, where the bijhop and tower
command
ON THE INDIAN GAME OF CHESS. 525
command a whole line, and where a knight is always of lefs value than*
a tower in adion, or the bilhop of that fide, on which the attack is be-
gun. " It is by the overbearing power of the elephant^ that the king
" fights boldly ; let the whole army, therefore, be abandoned, in order
*' to fecure the elephant : the king mufl never, place one elephant before
*' another, according to the rule of Go'tama, unlefs he be compelled
*' by want of room, for he would thus commit a dangerous fault ; and,
" if he can flay one of two hofl:ile, elephants, he muft deftroy that on his
*' left hand." The laft rule is extremely obfcure ; but, as Go'tama
was an illuftrious lawyer and . philofopher, he would not have conde-
fcended to leave dire£lions for the game of Chaiuranga^ if it had net
been held in great eftimation by the ancient fages of India. .
All that remains of the paflage, which was copied for me by Ra'dha-
ca'nt and explained by him, relates to the feveral modes, in which a
partial fuccefs or complete vi(3:ory may be obtained by any one of the
four: players ; for we fliall fee, that, as if a difpute had arifen between
two allies, one of the kings may alTume the. command of all the forces,-
and aim at feparate conqueft, Firft ; " When any one king has placei
" himfelf on the fquare of another king, which advantage is called Sin--
** hdjana, or the throne^ he wins a ftake ; which is doubled, if he kill the
" adverfe monarch, when he feizes his place; and, if he can feat himfelf
" on the throne of his ally, he takes the command of the whole army."
Secondly; " If he can occupy fucceffively the thrones of all three princes,^
" he obtains the vi(£lorj^, which is named C^rt/^ni/?, and, the. ftake is
*' doubled, if he kill the laft of the three, juft before he takes pofl!eflioa'
" of his throne ; but, if he kill him on his throne^ the flake is quadru-
*' pled." Thus, as the commentator remarks, in a, real warfare, a king
may be confidered as vidorious, when he feizes the metropolis of his ad-
verfary ; but, if he can deftroy his foe, he difplays greater heroifm, and
relieves his people from any further folicitude. " Both in gaining the
" Sinh/ifana ■
526 ON THE INDIAN GAME OF CHESS.
" Sinhafan^ and the Chaturapy fays Vya's A, the king muft be fupported
" by the elephants or by all the forces united." Thirdly ; " When one
" player has his own king on the board, but the king of his partner has
" been taken, he may replace his captive ally, if he can feize both the
" adverfe kings ; or, if he cannot effe£t their capture, he may exchange
" his king for one of them, againft the general rule, and thus redeem
" the allied prince, who will fupply his place." This advantage has the
name oi .NripctcrrJJ^t'tj^ or recovered by the king-, and the Naucacrijl:t' a
feems to be analogous to it, but confined to the cafe oijlnps. Fourthly ;
" If a pawn can march to any fquare on the oppofite extremity of the
" board, except that of the king, or that of the fhip, he aflumes what-
" ever power belonged to that fquare ; and this promotion is called Shat'-
" pada^ or xh& Jix Jirides^ Here we find the rule, with a fingular ex-
ception, concerning the advancement of pawns^ which often occafions a
moft interefting ftruggle at our common chefs, and which has furnilhed
the poets and moralifts oi Arabia and Perfia with many lively refledions on
human life. It appears, that " this privilege of Shat'pada was not allow-
" able, in the opinion of Go'tama, when a player had three pawns on
" the board ; but, when only one pawn and one fhip remained, the
" pawn might advance even to the fquare of a king or a Ihip, and aflume
" the power of either." Fifthly ; " According to the RdcJJiafas, or
" giants (that is, the people of Lanca^ where the game was invented),
" there. could be neither vidory nor defeat, if a king were left on the
*' plain without force ; a fituation which they named Cdcacajlof ha^''
Sixthly ; " If three fhips happen to meet, and the fourth fhip can be
" brought up to them in the remaining angle, this has the name of Vrl-
*' hannauca ; and the player of the fourth feizes all the others." Two
or three of the remaining couplets are fo dark, either from an error ii*
the manufcript or from the antiquity of the language, that I could not
underftand the Pandit's explanation of them, and fufpe£l that they gave
even him very indiftind ideas ; but it would be eafy, if it were worth
while,
ON THE INDIAN GAME OF CHESS. 527
•while, to play at the game by the preceding rules ; and a little pra£lice
would, perhaps, make the whole intelligible. One circumftance, in this
extract from the Puran^ feems very furprizing : all games of hazard are
pofitively forbidden by Menu, yet the game of Chaturanga^ in which
dice are ufed, is taught by the great Vya'sa himfelf, whofe lawtrad ap-
pears with that of Go TAMA among the eighteen books, which form the
Dhermafdjlra ; but, as Ra dha'ca'nt and his preceptor Jaganna't'h
are both employed by government in compiling a Digeft of Indian laws,
and as both of them, efpecially the venerable Sage of Tribeni^ underftand
the game, they are able, I prefume, to affign reafons, why it fhould
have been excepted from the general prohibition, aud even openly taught
by ancient and modern Brdhmans,
^ * ■<■♦.
il
AN
INDIAN GRANT OF LAND
IN Y.C. 1018,
LITERALLY TRANSLATED FROM THE SANSCRIT,
By The PRESIDENT.
As explained by Ra'malo'chan Pandit, communicated by General CAKtf AC.
O'M. Victory and Elevation !
STJNZAS.
IVxAY He, who in all affairs claims precedence in adoration ; may that
Gan'andyaca, averting calamity, preferve you from danger !
2. May that Siva conftantly preferve you, on whofe head ililnes
(Gang a') the daughter of Jahnu refembling-the-pure-crefcent-rifing-
from-the-fummit-of-S u M e'r u ! fa compound word offixtein fyllables) .
3. May that God, the caufe of fuccefs, the caufe of felicity, who keeps,
placed even by himfelf on his forehead a fe£lion of the-moon-with-cool-
beams, drawn-in-the-form-of-a-Hne-refembling-that-in-the-infinitely-
bright fpike-of-a-frefh-blown-C/z^r^z (who is) adorned-with-a-grove-of-
thick-red locks-tied-with-the-Prlnce-of-Serpents, be always prefent and
fevourable to you !
VOL. I. 4 A 4, The
530 AN INDIAN GRANT OF LAND,
4. The fon of Ji'mu'tace'tu ever afFedionate, named Ji'Mu'tava'-
IIANA, v>'ho, furely, prefen^ed (the Serpent) S'anc'hachu'd'a from Ga-
rud'a (the Eagle o/^ Vishnu), ivas famed in the three worlds, having
neglected his own body, as if It had been grafs, for the fake of others.
5. fTwo couplets in rhyme.) In his family was a monarch f named J
Capaudin (or, with thick hair, a title of Maha'de'va), chief of the
race of Si'la'ra, reprefling the infolence of his foes ; and from him
came a fon, named Pulas'acti, equal in encreafing glory to the fun's
bright circle.
6. When that fon of Capardin was a new-bom infant, through fear
of him, homage was paid by all his colleded enemies, with water held
aloft in their hands, to the delight of his realm.
7. From him came a fon, the only warriour on earth, named Sri'vap-
PUVANNA, a Hero in the theatre of battle.
8. His fon, called S'ri' Jhanjha, was highly celebrated, and the pre-
ferver of his country, he afterwards became the Sovereign of Gdgni : he
had a beautiful form.
,9. From him came a fon, whofe-renown-was-far-extended-^w^-ii'-^^?-
confounded-the-mind-with-his-wonderful-adts, the fortunate Bajjada
De'va : he was a monarch, a gem in-the-diadem-of-the-world's-circum-
ference ; who ufed only the forcible weapon of his two arms readily on
the plarn of combat ; and in whofe bofom the Fortune of K^ings herfelf
amoroufly played, as in the bofom of the foe of Mura (or Vishnu).
10. Like jAYANTAy fon to the foe of Vritta (or Indra), like
Shan-
FOUND AT TANNA, 531
Shanmuc'ha (or CARTiCE'YA)yo«toPuRA'Ri (or Maha'de'va) thea
fprang from him a fortunate fon, with a true heart, invincible ;
11. "Who in liberality was Carna before our eyes, in truth even
YuDHisHTHiRA, in glory a blazing Sun, and the rod of Ca'la (or
Yam a, judge of the infernal regions) to his enemies ;
1 2. By whom the great counfellors, who were under his prote£lion,
and others near ^/>/;, are preferved in this world : he is a conqueror,
named with propriety S'arana'gata Vajrapanjarade'va.
13. By whom when this world was over-fhadowed with-continual-
prefents-of-gold, for his liberality he was named Jagadarthi (or En-
riching the World) in the midft of the three regions of the univerfe.
14. Thofe Kings afliiredly, whoever they may be, who are endued
"with minds capable of ruling their refpedlive dominions, praife him for
the greatnefs of his veracity, generofity, and valour ; and to thofe princes,
who are deprived of their domains, and feek his protection, he allots a
firm fettlement: may he, the Grandfather of the Ra'ya, be viftorious !
he is the fpiritual guide of his counfellors, and they are his pupils. Yet
farther.
15. He, by whom the title of Go'Mma'ya was conferred on a perfon
who attained the objedl of his defire ; by whom the realm, fhaken by a
man named E'yapade'va, was even made firm, and by whom, being
the prince of Mamalambuva (I fuppofe, Maml>ei\ or Bombay) fecurity
from fear was given to me broken with affliSlion ; He was the King,
named S'ri' Virudanca : how can he be otherwife painted ? Here fix
fyllabks are effaced in one of the Grants ; and this vefe is not in the other,
iG. His
532 AN INDIAN GRANT OF LAND,
Ifi. His fon was named Bajjadade'va, a gem on the forehead of
monarchs, eminently {killed in morality ; whofe deep thoughts all the
people, clad in horrid armour, praife even to this day.
];. Then was born his brother the prince Arice'sari (a Hon among
his foes), the heft of good men ; who, by overthrowing the ftrong moun-
tain of his proud enemies, did the a£t of a thunder-bolt ; having formed
great defigns even in his childhood, and having feen the Lord of the
Moon (Maha'de'va) f.atidmg before him, he marched by his father's
order, attended by his troops, and by valour fubdued the world.
Yet more-
18. Having raifed up his flain foe on his fharp fword, he fo afflided
the women in the hoftile palaces, that their forelocks fell difordered,
their garlands of bright flowers dropped from their necks on the vafes of
their breafls, and the black luftre of their eyes difappeared.
1 9. A warriour, the plant of whofe fame grows up over the temple of
Brahma's Egg (the univerfe), from-the repeated-watering-of-it-with-
the-drops-that-fell-from-the-eyes-of-the-wives-of-his-flaughtered-foe.
Afterwards by the multitude of his innate virtues (then follows a com-
pound word of an hundred and fifty-two fyllables ) th e-fortunate-AR ice's A-
R i-D E ' v A R A ' J A - Lord-of- the - great-circle-adorned-with-all-the-company-
of-princes-with-VAjRAPANjARA-of-whom-men-feek-the-protedion-an-
elephant's-hook-in-the-forehead-of-the-world-pleafed-with-encreafmg-
vice-a-Flamingo-bird-ln-the-pool-decked-with-flowers-like-thofe-of-para-
dife-and-with-A'DiTYA-PANDiTA-chief-of-the-diftrids-of-the-world-
through-the-liberality-of-the-lord-of-the-Weftern-Sea-holder-of-innate-
knowledge- who -bears-a- golden -cagle-on-his-ftandard-defcended-from-
the-
FOUND AT TANNA. 533
the-ftock-of Ji'MU'TAVA'HANA-king-of-the-race-of-^/Air^-Soverelgn-of-
the-City-of-T'rt^^r^-Supreme-ruler-of-exalted-counfellors-afrembled-when-
extended-fame-had-been-attained (the monarch thus defcrlbed) governs
the-whole-region-of-CoW^^^-confifting-of-fourteen-hundred-villages-with
cities-and-other-places-comprehended-in-many-diftrid:s-acquired-by-his-
arm. Thus he fupports the burden of thought concerning this domain.
The Chief-Minifter S'ri' Va'sapaiya and the very-religioufly-purified
Sri' Va'rdhiyapaiya being at this time prefent, he, the fortunate
Arice'saride'vara''ja, Sovereign of the great circle, thus addrefes
even all who inhabit-the-city-S'Ri' Stha^naca for the Manjion of
L ACS hm'i), his-own-kinfmen-and-others-there-aflembled, princes-coun-
fellors-priefl:s-minifters-fuperiors-inferiors-fubje£t-to-his-commands, alfo
the-lords-of diftricts,-the-Governors-of towns-chiefs-of-villages-the-maf-
ters-of-families-employed-or-unemployed-fervants-of-the-King-and-z^/j-
countrj^men. Thus he greets all-the-holy-men-and-others-inhabiting-
i\vt-c\\.-Y-oi Hanyamana : reverence be to you, as it is becoming, with all
the marks of refpe(3:, falutation, and praife !
STANZA.
Wealth is inconftant ; youth, deftroyed in an inflant ; and life, placed
between the teeth of Critanta (or Yama before mentioned).
Neverthelefs negleft is JJjoivn to the felicity of departed anceftors.
Oh ! how aftonifhing are the efforts of men !
And thus. — Youth is publickly fwallowed-up-by-the-giantefs Old -Age
admitted-into-its-inner manfion ; and the bodily-frame-is-equally-ob-
noxious-to-the-afTault-of-death-of-age-and- the- mifery-born- with- man-
of- feparation-between- united-friends- like -falling -from-heaven-into-the-
lower regions : riches and life are two things more-moveable-than-a-
drop - of water - trembling - on-the - leaf- of- a - iotos-Ihaken- by- the- wind ;
and
534 AN INDIAN GRANT OF LAND,
and the world is like-the-firft delicate-foliage-of-a-plantain-tree. Con-
fidering this in lecret with a firm difpaffionate underftanding, and alfo the
fruit cf liberal donations mentioned by the wifey I called to mind thefe
STANZAS.
1 . In the Satya, I'reta^ and Dwdper Ages, great piety was celebrated :
but in this Caliyiiga the Muni's have nothing to commend but liberality.
1', Not lo productive of fruit is learning, not fo produdive is piety, as
liberality, fay the Muni's^ in this Cali Age. And, thus was it faid by the
Divine Vya'sa:
3. Gold was the firft offspring of Fire ; the Earth is the daughter of
Vishnu, and kine are the children of the Sun: the three worlds, there'
foi\\ are afluredly given by him, who makes a gift of Gold, Earth, and
Cattle.
A. Our deceafed fathers clap their hands, our Grandfathers exult:
faying^ " a donor of land is born in our family : he will redeem us."
5. A donation of land to good perfons, for holy pilgrimages, and on
the (five) folemn days of the moon, is the mean of paffing over the deep
boundlefs ocean of the world.
6. White parafols, and elephants mad with pride (the infignia of royalty)
are the flowers of a grant of land : the fruit is Ikdra in heaven.
Thus, confirming the declarations of the-ancient-M««/'j--learned-in-th€
diftindion-between-juftice-and-injuftice, for the fake of benefit to my
mother, my father, and myfelf, on the fifteenth of the bright moon of
Ccirtica^ in the middle of the year Pingala (perhaps of the Serpent J^
when
FOUND AT TANNA. 535
when nine hundred and forty yeai-s, fave one, are reckoned as paft from
the tune of King S'ac A, or, in figures, the year gsg, of the bright moon
of Cdrtica 15 (that is I/O8 — 939=769 years ago from Y.C. 178;.
The moon being then full and eclipfed, I having bathed in the oppofite
fea refembllng-the-girdles-round-th€-waifl-of-the-female-Earth, tinged-
with-a-variety-of-rays-like-many-exceedingIy-bright-rubies,-pearIs-^«^-
o/;6^r-geiiis, with- water- whofe-mud-was-becorae-mufk-through-the-fre-
quent-bathing-of-the-fragrant-bofom-of-beautiful-Goddefres-rifing-up-
after-having-dived-in-it ;-and having offered to the fun, the divine lumi-
nary, the-gem-of-one-circle-of-heaven, eye-of-the-three-worlds, Lord of-
the lotos, a difh embellifhed-with-flowers-of-vavious-foits (this dilh is
filled with the plant Darbha^ rice in the hulk, different flov^ers, and
fandal) have granted to him, who has viewed the preceptor of the Gods
and of Demons, who has adored the Sovereign Deity the-hufband-of-
Ambica' (orDuRGA'), has facrificed-caufed-others-to-facrifice,-has read-
eaufed-others-to-read-and-has-performed-the-refl-of-the-fix (Sacerdotal)
fundlions; who-is-eminently-fkilled-in-the-whole-bufinefs-of-performing-
facrlfices, who-has-held-up the-root-and-ftalk-of-the-facred-lotos ; wlio-
inhabits-the-city-SRi St'ha'naca (or abode of Forttinejy defcended
from Jamadagni ; who-performs-due-rites-in-the-holy-flream j who-
diflin£Uy-knows-the-myflerious-branches (of the VedasJ, the domeftlck
prieft, the reader, SrI Ticcapaiya, fon of Sri Chch'hintapaiya
the aftronomer, for-the-purpofe-of-facrificing-caufing-others to-facrifice-
reading-cauiing-others-to-read-and-difcharging-the-rell of- the-fix - (Sa-
cerdotal-) duties, of performing-the (daily fervice of) Vais'wadeva with
offerings of rice, milk, and materials of facrifice, and- of-completing- with
due-folemnity the facrifice-of-fire-of doing-fuch-a£ts-as-muft-continuaIly-
be-done, and fuch-as-muft-occafionally-be-performed, of paying-due-
honours to guefls and flrangers, and-of-fupporting his-own-famil^-, the
village of C/6i^7««V/z-ftandiTig-at-the-extremity of-the-terxitory of Vatfa-
rajcy and the boundaries of which are^ to the Eaft the village of Fiia-
gambit
530 AN INDIAN GRANT OF LAND,
ganiba and a water-fall-from a mountain ; to the South the villages of
Nagamba and Muladongarica .; to the Weft the river Sambarapallica ; to
the North the villages of Sdmbhe and Cdt'iydlaca ; and befides this the
full (dijlriti) of Tocabala Pallkdy the boundaries of which are to the
Eaft Siddbah ; to the South the river Mot'hala ; to the Weft Cdcdde'va^
Hallapallka^ and Bddaviraca ; to the North Taldvali Pallicd ; and alfo
the Village of Aiilaciyd^ the boundaries of which (are) to the Eaft T'ddd-
ga ; to the South Govini ; to the Weft Charted, to the North Calibald-
yacholi : (that land) thus furveyed-on-the-four-quarters-and limited-to-
its-proper-bounds, with-its-herbage-wood-and-water, and with-power-of-
puniftning-for-the-ten-crimes, except that before given as the portion of
Deva, or of Brahma, I have hereby releafed, and limited-by-the-dura-
tion-of-the-fun-the-moon-and-mountains, confirmed with-the-ceremony-
of adoration, with a copious effufion of water and with the higheft adls-
of-worftiip ; and the fame land ftiall be enjoyed by his lineal-and-coUa-
teral-heirs, or caufed-to-be-enjoyed, nor fhall difturbance be given by any
perfon whatever : fmce it is thus declared by great Munts,
STANZAS.
1. The Earth is enjoyed by many kings, by Sa'gar, and by others:
to whomfoever the foil at any time belongs, to him at that time belong
the fruits of it.
2. A fpeedy gift is attended with no fatigue ; a continued fupport,
with great trouble : therefore, even the IGjhi's declare, that a continuance
of fupport is better than a fmgle gift.
3. Exalted Emperors of good difpofitions have given land, as Ra'ma-
BIIADRA advifes, again and again: this is the true bridge of juftice for
fovereigns : from time to time (O kings) that bridge muft be repaired
by you,
A. Thofe
FOUND AT TANNA. 53;
-1. Thofe pofleflions here below, which have been granted in former
times by fovereigns, given for-the-fake-of-religion-increafe-of-wealth-or
of-fame, are exadlly equal to flowers, which have been offered to a
Deity : what good man would vefume /uc/j gjfts^
Thus, confirming the precepts of ancient Muni's^ all future kings muft
gather the fruit-of-obferving-religious-duties ; and let not the ftain-of-the
crime-of-deftroying-this-^ra;?^ be borne henceforth by any-one : fmce,
whatever prince^ being fupplicated, fhall, through avarice, having-his-
mind-wholly-furrounded-with-the-gloom-of-ignorance-contemptuoufly-
dlfraifs-the-injured-fupliant, He, being guilty of five great dsi^Ji've fmall
crimes, fhall long in darknefs inhabit Raurava, MaMraurava^ Andhoy
Tamifra, and the other places of punifhment. And thus it is declared
by the divine Vya'sa:
STANZAS.
T. He, who feizes land, given-by-himfelf or by-another (foverelgn),
will rot among worms, himfelf a worm, in the midil of ordure.
2. They, who feize granted-land, are born again, living with great
fear, in dry cavities of trees in the unwatered forefts on the Vinddhian
(mountains).
3. By feizing one cow, one vefture, or even one nail's breadth of
ground, a king continues in hell till an univerfal deftrudlion of the world
has happened.
A. By (a gift of) a thoufand gardens, and by (a gift of) a hundred
pools of water, by (giving) a hundred lac of oxen, a diffeifor of (granted)
land is not cleared from offence.
VOL. I. 4 B 5. A
538 AN INDIAN GRANT OF LAND.
5. A grantor of land remains in heaven fixty thoufand years ; a dif-
feifor, and he, who refufes to do jullice, continues as many (years) in
hell.
And, agreeably to this, in what is written by the hand of the Secre-
tary, (the King) having ordered it, declares his own intention ; as it is
written by the command of me, fovereign of the great Circle, the fortu-
nate Arice'sari De'vara/Ja, fon of the Sovereign of the Great Circle,
the Fortunate, invincible, De'varaja.
And this is written, by order of the Fortunate King, by me Jo'-uba,
the brother's-fon-of S'ri' NA'GALAiYA,-the great-Bard,-dwelling-in-the
royal palace; engraved-on-plates-of-copper by Ve'dapaiya's fonMANA
Dha'ra Paiya. Thus (it ends).
Whatever herein (may be) defedive in-one-fyllable, or have-one-fylla-
ble-redundant, all that is (neverthelefs) complete evidence (of the grant).
Thus (ends the whole).
INSCRIPTIONS
!!/ f!^^
\ol 1
/7,i Ar.o.
The Staff of FIRUZ SHAII .
INSCRIPTIONS
ON
THE STAFF OF FFRUZ SHAH.
TRANSLATED FROM THE SANSCRIT,
As explained by Ra'dha'ca'nta Sarman.
By The PRESIDENT.
V^N a very fingular monument near Dehli, an outline of which is here
exhibited, and which the natives call the Staff of Fi'ru'z Shah, are
feveral old Infcriptions partly in ancient Ndgan letters, and partly in a
charader yet unknown ; and Lieutenant Colonel Polier, having pro-
cured exa£t impreffions of them, prefents the Society with an accurate
copy of all the infcriptions. Five of them are in Smfcrity and, for the
moft part, intelligible ; but it will require great attention and leifure to
decypher the others : if the language be Sanfcrit, the powers of the un-
known letters may perhaps hereafter be difcovered by the ufual mode of
decyphering ; and that mode, carefully applied even at firll:, may lead to
a dlfcovery of the language. In the mean time a literal verfion of the
legible infcriptions is laid before you : they are on the whole fufficiently
clear, but the fenfe of one or two paffages is at prefent inexplicable.
I.
The firft, on the Southweft fide of the pillar, is perfectly detached
from
540 INSCRIPTIONS ON
from the reft : it is about feventeen feet frojn the bafe, and two feci
higher than the other infcriptions.
In the year 1230, on the firft day of the Bright half of the month
Vaijac'b (a monument), of the Fortunate-Vi'sALA-DE'vA-fon of the-
Fortunate-AMiLLA Ti-EiN h^-Y^Xn^-oi-SacambharK
n.
The next, which is engraved as a fpeclmen of the charader, confifts
of two ftanzas in four Hnes ; but each hemiftich is imperfect at the end,
the two firft wanting y£"U^», and the two \2&Jive^ fyllables : the word Sa-
cambhari in the former infcription enables us to fupply the clofe of the
third hemiftich.
OTVI.
As far as Vindhya^ as far as Himddri (the mountain of Snow), he %vas
not deficient in celebrity making Aryaverta (the Land of
Virtue, or India J, even once more what its name fignifies He
having departed, Prativa'hama'na Tilaca (is) king oi Sacambhari :
fSdcam only remains on the monument) by us (the region between) Hi-
maivat and Vindhya has been made tributary.
In the year from Sri Vicrama'Ditya 123, in the Bright half of the
month Vaifdcb .... at that time the Rdjaputra 6'r} Sall aca was Prime
Minifter.
The fecond ftanza, fupplied partly from the laft infcription, and partly
by conjedure, will run thus :
vritte sa prativdhamdna tilacah snicambharibhupatih
afmdbhih caradam vyadhdyi himawadvindhydtavimandalam.
The
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C^
THE STAFF OF FI'RU'Z SHAH. 54 1
The date 123 is here perfedly clear ; at leaft it is clear, that only three
figures are written, without even room for a cipher after them ; whence
we may guefs, that the double circle in the former infcription was only
an ornament, or the neutral termination a7n : if fo, the date of ioi/j is
the year of Christ fixty-feven ; but, if the double circle be a Zero, the
monument of Vi'sala De'va is as modern as the year 1171 or nineteen
years before the conqueft of Dehli by Shiha'bu'ddi'n.
Ill and IV.
The two next infcriptions were in the fame words, but the ftanzas,
which in the fourth are extremely mutilated, are tolerably perfedt in the
third, wanting only a few fyllables at the beginning of the hemiftichs :
yah clhlvefhu praharta nripatifhu vinamatcandharefhu prafannah
— vah s'ambi purindrah jagati vijayate vifala cfhonipalah
... da fajnya efha vijayi fantanajanatmajah
. . punan cfhemaftu bruvatamudyogas'unyanmanah
He^ who is refentful to kings intoxicated with pride, indulgent to thofe,
whofe necks arehum bled, an Indra in the city of Caufambi (I fufpedt
Caufutnbi^ a city near Hajiindpiir^ to be the true reading), who is victo-
rious in the world, Vi'sala, fovereign of the earth : he gives .... his
commands being obeyed, he is a conqueror, the fon of Santa'naj a'na,
whofe mind, when his foes fay, ' Let there be mercy,' is free from fur-
ther hoftility.
This infcription was engraved, in the prefence of Sr'i Tilaca Ra'ja,
by Sri'pati, the fon of Ma'hava, a Cdyajl'ha, of a family in Gaud'a,
or Bengal.
V.
The fifth feems to be an elegy on the death of a king named Vi-
CRAHA,
542
GRAHA, who is reprefented as only flumberlng: the laft hemlftlch is
hardly legible and very obfcure ; but the fenfe of both ftanzas appears to
be this.
O'M.
1. An offence to the eyes of (thy) enemy's conlbrt (thou) by-whom-
fortune-was-given-to-every fuppliant, thy fame, joined to extenfive do-
minion, fhines, as we defire, before us ; the heart of (thy) foes was vacant,
even as a path in a defert, where men are hindred from pafling, O fortu-
nate ViGRAHA Ra'jade'va, in the jubilee occafioned by thy march.
2. May thy abode, O Vigraha, fovereign of the world, be fixed, as
in reafon (it ought), in the bofoms, embellifhed with love's allurements
and full of dignity, of the women with beautiful eyebrows, who were
married to thy enemies ! Whether thou art Indra, or Vishnu, or
Siva, there is even no deciding : thy foes (are) fallen, like defcending
water ; oh ! why doft thou, through delufion, continue ileeping ?
ON
ON
THE BAYA, OR INDIAN GROSS-BEAK.
Defcribed by At'har Ali' Kha'n of Dehli.
Translated by the PRESIDENT.
X HE little bird, called Bay a in Hindi, Berber a in Sanfcrit, Bdbui in
the dialed of Bengal, Cibu in Perfian, and I'enawwit in Arabkk, from
his remarkably pendent neft, is rather larger than a fparrow, with yellow-
brown plumage, a yellowifh head and feet, a light-coloured breaft, and a
conick beak very thick in proportion to his body. This bird is exceed-
ingly common in Hindujldn : he is aftonifhingly fenfible, faithful, and
docile, never voluntarily deferting the place where his young were
hatched, but not averfe, like moft other birds, to the fociety of mankind,
and eafily taught to perch on the hand of his mailer. In a ftate of na-
ture he generally builds his neft on the higheft tree, that he can find, ef-
pecially on the palmyra, or on the Indian fig-tree, and he prefers that,
which happens to overhang a well or a rivulet : he makes it of grafs,
which he weaves 'like cloth and Ihapes like a large bottle, fufpending it
firmly on the branches, but fo as to rock with the wind, and placing it
with its entrance downwards to fecure it from birds of prey. His neft
ufually confifts of two or three chambers ; and it is the popular belief,
that he lights them with fire-flies, w^hich he catches alive at night and
confines with moift clay, or with cow- dung : that fuch flies are often found
in
544 ON THE BAY A.
in his neft, where pieces of cow-dung are alio (luck, is indubitable ; but,
as their light could be of little ufe to him, it feems probable that he only-
feeds on them. He may be taught with eale to fetch a piece of paper,
or any fmall thing, that his mafter points out to him : it is an attefted
fa<£l:, that, if a ring be dropped into a deep well, and a fignal given to
him, he will fly down with amazing celerity, catch the ring before it
touches the water, and bring it up to his mafter with apparent exultation ;
and it is confidently afferted, that, if a houfe or any other place be fhown
to him once or twice, he will carry a note thither immediately on a pro-
per fignal being made. One inftance of his docility I can myfelf men-
tion with confidence, having often been an eye witnefs of it : the young
Hindu women at Banares and in other places wear very thin plates of
gold, called tica's, flightly fixed by way of ornament between their eye-
brows ; and, when they pafs through the ftreets, it is not uncommon for
the youthful libertines, who amufe themfelves with training Bayas^ to
give them a fign which they underftand, and fend them to pluck the
pieces of gold from the foreheads of their miftreifes, which they bring in
triumph to the lovers. The Bay a feeds naturally on grafs- hoppers and
other infe£ts, but will fubfift, when tame, on pulfe macerated in water :
his flefh is warm and drying, of eafy digeftion, and recommended, in
medical books, as a folvent of ftone in the bladder or kidneys ; but of
that virtue there is no fufficient proof. The female lays many beautiful
eggs refembling large pearls : the white of them, when they are boiled, is
tranfparent, and the flavour of them is exqulfitely delicate. When many
Bayas are aflembled on a high tree, they make a lively din, but it is
rather chirping than finging ; their want of mufical talents is, however,
amply fupplied by their wonderful fagacity, in which they are not ex-
celled by any feathered inhabitants of the foreft.
ON
1
<
I — I
U
<
^
ON
THE PANGOLIN OF BAHAR.
Se?2t by Matthew Leslie, Efq^,
And described by the PRESIDENT.
X HE fingular animal, which M. Buff ON defcribes by the name
of Timgolin^ is well known in Europe fince the publication of his
Natural Hiftory and Goldsmith's elegant abridgement of it; but, if
the figure exhibited by Buffon was accurately delineated from the three
animals, the fpoils of which he had examined, we muft confider that,
which has been lately brought from Caracdiah to Chitra, and fent thence
to the Prefidency, as a remarkable variety, If not a different fpecies, of
the Pangolin : ours has hardly any neck, and, though fome filaments are
difcernible between the fcales, they can fcarce be called briftles ; but the
principal difference is in the tail ; that of Buffon's animal being long,
and tapering almoft to a point, while that of ours is much fhorter, ends
obtufely, and refembles in form and flexibility the tail of a lobfter. In
other refpedls, as far as we can judge from the dead fubjedt, it has all the
characters of Buffon's Pangolin ; a name derived from that, by which
the animal is diftlnguifhed in "Java^ and confequently preferable to Manis or
Pholidotiis, or any other appellation deduced from an European language.
As to x\\Q,fcaly lizard, xhcfcaled ylrmadillo, and the. Jive-nailed Ant-eater^
they are manifeftly improper delignations of this animal ; which is neither
a lizard, nor an armadillo in the common acceptation ; and, though it be
vol i. 4 c an
alt) 0\ IHE PANGOLIN OF BAHAR.
an ant-eater^ yet it eflentially differs from the hairy quadruped uiually
known by that general defcription. We are told, that the Malahar name
of this animal is Alungu : the natives of Bahdr call it Bajar-cit, or, as
they explain the word, Stonc-vermine ; and, in the ftomach of the animal
before us, was found about a teacupful of fmall Jiones^ which had proba-
bly been fwallowed for the purpofe of facilitating digeftion ; but the name
alludes, I believe, to the hardticfs of the fcales ; for Vajracit'a means in
Sanfcrit the Diamond^ or Thunderbolt^ reptile^ and Fajra is a common
figure in the Indian poetry for any thing exceffively hard. The Vajra-
cit'a is believed by the Pandits to be the animal, which gnaws ihdr/acred
Jlone^ called Sdlgrdmas'ila ; but the Pangolin has apparently no teeth, and
the Sdlgrams^ many of which look as if they had been worm-eaten, are
perhaps only decayed in part by expofure to the air.
This animal had a long tongue fhaped like that of a cameleon ; and, if
It was nearly adult, as we may conclude from the young one found in
it, the dimenfions of it were much lefs than thofe, which Buffon af-
figns generally to his Pangolin ; for he defcribes its length as fix, feven, or
eight feet including the tail, which is almoft, he fays, as long as the
body, when it has attained its full growth ; whereas ours is but thirty-
four inches long from the extremity of the tail to the point of the fnout,
and the length of the tail is fourteen inches ; but, exclufively of the
head, which is five inches long, the tail and body are, indeed, nearly of
the fame length ; and the fmall difference between them may fhow, if
Buffon be corredl in this point, that the animal was young: the cir-
cumference of its body in the thickeft part is twenty inches, and that of
the tail, only twelve.
We cannot venture to fay more of this extraordinary creature, which
feems to conftitute the firft ftep from the quadruped to the reptile, until
we have examined it alive, and obferved its different inftinits ; but, as we
are
ON THE PANGOLIN OF BAHAR. 547
are afTured, that it is common in the country round Khdnpur^ and at
Chdtigdm, where the native Miifelmans call it the hand-carp^ we fliall
poffibly be able to give on fome future occafion a fuller account of it.
There are in our Indian provinces many animals, and many hundreds of
medicinal plants, which have either not been defcribed at all, or, what is
worfe, ill defcribed by the naturalifts of Europe ; and to procure perfedl
defcriptions of them from a(2;ual examination, with accounts of their
feveral ufcs In medicine, diet, or manufactures, appears to be one of the
raoft important objecls of our inftitution.
ON
THE LORIS,
SLOJrPJCED LEMUR.
By The PRESIDENT.
A H E fingular animal, which moft of you faw alive, and of which I
now lay before you a perfedly accurate figure, has been very correctly
defcribed by LiNN^us ; except \}cva.\. fickled would have been a jufter
epithet than awled for the bent claws on its hinder indices, and that the
ftze of afquirrel feems an improper, becaufe a variable, meafure : its con-
figuration and colours are particularized alfo with great accuracy by
M. Daubenton ; but the Ihort account of the Loris by M. De Buf-
fON appears unfatisfadlory, and his engraved reprefentation of it has
little refemblance to nature ; fo little that, when I was endeavouring to
find in his work a defcription of the quadrumane, which had juft been
fent me from Dacca, I paffed over the chapter on the Loris^ and afcertained
it merely by feeing in a note the Linnean character of the flowpaced
Lemur. The illuftrious French naturalift, whom, even when we criti-
cife a few parts of his noble work, we cannot but name with admiration,
obferves of the Loris^ that, from the proportion of its body and limbs ^ one
iiould not fuppofe it flow in walking or leaping^ and intimates an opinion,
that
///,• .,/^',r/urrr^/ JT?//////'
ON THE LORIS, OR SLOWPACED LEMUR. »545
that Seba gave this animal the epithet oi Jlowmoving^ from fome fancied
likenefs to the floth of America : but, though its body be remarkably-
long in proportion to the breadth of it, and the hinder legs, or more
properly arms, much longer than thofe before, yet the Lcris, in fad,
walks or climbs very flowly, and is, probably, unable to leap. Neither
its genus nor fpecies, vsre find, are new : yet, as its temper and inftindls
are undefcribed, and as the Natural Hijlory by M, De Buffon, or the
Syjiem of Nature by Linn^us, cannot always be readily procured, I
have fet down a few remarks on the form^ the vianners, the name, and
the country of my little favourite, who engaged my afFedtion, while he
lived, and whofe memory I wifh to perpetuate.
I. This male animal had four hands, each five-fingered ; palms, naked;
nails, round ; except thofe of the indices behind, which were long,
curved, pointed ; hair, very thick, efpecially on the haunches, extremely
foft, moftly dark grey, varied above with brown and a tinge of ruflet ;
darker on the back, paler about the face and under the throat, reddifh
towards the rump ; no tail, a dorfal ftripe, broad, chefnut-coloured, nar-
rower towards the neck ; a head, almoft fpherical : a countenance, ex-
preffive and interefting ; eyes, round, large, approximated, weak in the
day time, glowing and animated at night ; a white vertical ftripe between
them ; eye-laihes, black, fhort ; ears, dark, rounded, concave ; great
acutenefs at night both in feeing and hearing ; a face, hairy, flattilh ; a
nofe, pointed, not much elongated ; the upper lip, cleft ; canine teeth,
comparatively long, very fliarp.
More than this I could not obferve on the living animal ; and he died
at a feafon, when I could neither attend a difledion of his body, nor
with propriety requeft any of my medical friends to perform fuch an
operation during the heats of Augujl ; but I opened his jaw and counted
only two incifors above and as many below, which might have been a
VOL. I. *-i c 3 defeil,
546* ON THE LORIS, OR SLOWPACED LEMUR.
defed:. In the individual ; and it is mentioned fimply as a fa£t without
any intention to cenfure the generick arrangement of Linn^us.
II. In his manners he was for the moft part gentle, except in the cold
feafon, when his temper feemed wholly changed ; and his creator, who
made him fo fenfible of cold, to which he muft often have been expofed
even in his native forefts, gave him, probably, for that reafon his thick
fur, which we rarely fee on animals in thefe tropical climates : to me,
who not only conftantly fed him, but bathed him twice a week in water
accommodated to the feafons, and whom he clearly diftinguifhed from
others, he was at all times grateful ; but, when I difturbed him in winter,
he was ufualiy indignant, and feemed to reproach me with the uneafmefs
which he felt, though no polTible precautions had been omitted to keep
him in a proper degree of warmth. At all times he was pleafed with
being ftroked on the head and throat, and frequently fuffered me to touch
his extreinely fliarp teeth ; but at all times his temper was quick, and,
when he was unfeafonably difturbed, he exprefled a little refentment by
an obfcure murmur, like that of a Iquirrel, or a greater degree of dif-
pleafure by a peevifh cry, efpecially in winter, when he was often as
fierce, on being much importuned, as any beaft of the woods. From half
an hour after funrife to half an hour before funfet, he flept without in-
termiffion rolled up like a hedge-hog ; and as foon as he awoke, he be-
gan to prepare himfelf for the labours of his approaching day, licking
and drefling himieli like a cat ; an operation, which the flexibility of his
neck and limbs enabled him to perform very completely : he was then
ready for a flight breakfaft, after which he commonly took a fhort nap ;
but, when the fun was quite fet, he recovered all his vivacity. His or-
dinary food was the fweet fruit of this country ; plantains always, and
mangos during the feafon ; but he refufed peaches, and was not fond of
mulberries, or even of guaiavas : milk he lapped eagerly, but was con-
tented with })lain water. In general he was not voracious, but never
appeared
* -. A "7
ON THE LORIS, OR SLOWPACED LEiMUR. *j4
appeared fatiated with grafshoppers ; and pafTed the whole night, while
the hot feafon lafted, in prowling for them : when a gralshopper, or any
infed, alighted within his reach, his eyes, which he fixed on his prey,
glowed with uncommon fire ; and, having drawn himfelf back to fpring
on it with greater force, he feized the vidim with both his forepaws, but
held it in one of them, while he devoured it. For other pui-pofes, and
fometimes even for that of holding his food, he ufed all his paws in-
differently as hands, and frequently grafped with one of them the
higher part of his ample cage, while his three others were feverally en-
gaged at the bottom of it ; but the pofture, of which he feemed fondeft,
was to cling with all four of them to the upper wires, his body being in-
verted ; and in the evening he ufually flood ere£l for many minutes
playing on the wires with his fingers and rapidly moving his body from
fide to fide, as if he had found the utility of exercife in his unnatural
ftate of confinement. A little before day break, when my early houra
gave me frequent opportunities of obferving him, he feemed to folicit my
attention ; and, if I prefented my finger to him, he licked or nibbled it
with great gentlenefs, but eagerly took fruit, when I offered it ; though
he feldom ate much at his morning repaft : when the i/ay brought back
his nighty his eyes loft their luftre and ftrength, and he compofed himfelf
for a flumber of ten or eleven hours.
III. The names L,orls and Lemur will, no doubt, be continued by the
refpedtive difciples of Buffon and Linnaeus ; nor can I fuggeft any
other, fince the Pandits know little or nothing of the animal : the lower
Hindus of this province generally call it Lajjdbanar^ or the Bafhful Ape,
and the Mujelmans^ retaining the fenfe of the epithet, give it the abfurd
appellation of a cat ; but it is neither a cat nor bafhful ; for, though a
Pandit^ who faw my Lemur by day light, remarked that he was Lajjalu
or modejl (a word which the Hindus apply to all Senjitive Plants)^ yet he
only feemed bafliful, while in fadt he was dim fighted and drowfy ; for
at
5 J 8* ON THE LORIS, OR SLOWPACED LEMUR.
at night, as you perceive by his figure, he had open eyes, and as much
boldnefs as any of the Lemiwes poetical or Linnean.
IV. As to his country, the firfl: of the fpecies, that I faw in India, was
in the diftrid of Tipra, properly Tripura, whither it had been brought,
like mine, from the Garrow mountains ; and Dr. Anderson informs
me, that it is found in the woods on the coaft of Coromandel : another
had been fent to a member of our fociety from one of the eaftern ifles ;
and, though the Loris may be alfo a native of Sildn^ yet I cannot agree
with M. De Buffon, that it is the minute, fociable, and docile animal
mentioned by Thevenot, which it refembles neither in fize nor in
difpofition.
My little friend was, on the whole, very engaging ; and, when he was
found lifelefs, in the fame pofture in which he would naturally have flept,
I confoled myfelf with believing, that he had died without pain, and
lived with as much pleafure as he could have enjoyed in a ftate of cap-
tivity.
OJi
ON
THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
By The PRESIDENT,
x\MONG the affliding maladies, which punifli the vices and try the
virtues of mankind, there are few diforders, of which the confequences
are more dreadful or the remedy in general more defperate than the
judhdm of the Arabs or khorah of the Indians : it is alfo called in Arabia
daurafad^ a name correfponding with the Leontiajis of the Greeks^ and
fuppofed to have been given in allufion to the grim diftrafted and lionlike
countenances of the miferable perfons, who are afFefted with it. The
more common name of the diftemper is Elephantiafis, or, as Lucretius
calls it, Elephas^ becaufe it renders the {kin, like that of an Elephant, un-
even and wrinkled, with many tubercles and furrows ; but this complaint
muft not be confounded with the dduPfil, or /welled legs, defcribed by
the Arabian phyficians, and very common in this country. It has no
fixed name in EngliJJj, though Hillary, in his Obfervations on the Dif-
eafes of Barbadoes, calls it the Leprofy of the joints, becaufe it principally
afFefts the extremities, which in the laft ftage of the malady are diftorted
and at length drop ofFj but, fmce it is in truth a diftemper corrupting
the whole mafs of blood, and therefore confidered by Paul oi JEgina as
an univerfal ulcer, it requires a more general appellation, and may pro-
perly be named the Black Leprofy j which term is in fad adopted by
M. Bois-
550 ON THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS.
M. BoissiEU de Sauvages and Gorrceus, in contradiftindlon to the
White Leprofy, or the Beres of the Arabs and Leiice of the Greeks.
This difeafe, by whatever name we diftinguifh it, is peculiar to hot
chmates, and has rarely appeared in Europe : the philofophical Poet of
Rome fuppofes it confined to the banks of the Nile ; and it has certainly
been imported from Africa into the Wefi-India Iflands by the black flaves,
who carried with them their refentment and their revenge ; but it has
been long known in Hindiijian^ and the writer of the following Diflerta-
tion, whofe father was Phyfician to Na'dirsha'h and accompanied him
from Perfia to DehU^ aflures me that it rages with virulence among the
native inhabitants of Calcutta. His obfervation, that it is frequently a
confequence of the 'venereal infe5iion^ would lead us to believe, that it
might be radically cured by Mercury \ which has, neverthelefs, been
found inefTedual, and even hurtful, as Hillary reports, in the Weji-
Indies. The juice oi hemlock, fuggefled by the learned Michaelis, and
approved by his medical friend Roederer, might be very efficacious at
the beginning of the diforder, or in the milder forts of it ; but, in the
cafe of a malignant and inveterate judha/n, we muft either adminifter a
remedy of the higheft power, or, agreeably to the defponding opinion of
Celsus, leave the patient to his fate, infead of teafmg him with friiitlefs
medicines, and fuffer him, in the forcible words of Aret^eus, to fink
from inextricable Jlumber into death. The life of a man is, however, fo
dear to him by nature, and in general fo valuable to fociety, that we
fhould never defpond, while a fpark of it remains; and, whatever
apprehenfions may be formed of future danger from the diftant efFedts
of arfeniek, even though it fhould eradicate a prefent malady, yet, as no
fuch inconvenience has arifen from the ufe of it in India, and, as Ex-
perience muft ever prevail over Theory, I cannot help wifhing, that
this ancient Hindu medicine may be fully tried under the infpedion
of our European Surgeons, whofe minute accuracy and fteady atten-
tion
ON THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS. 551
tion muft always give them a claim to fuperiority over the moft learned
natives ; but many of our countrymen have aflured me, that they by no
means entertain a contemptuous opinion of the native medicines, efpe-
cially in difeafes of the fkin. Should it be thought, that the mixture of
fulphur muft render the poifon lefs aftive, it may be advifable at firft to
adminifter orpiment, inftead of the cryJlalUne arfenick.
ON
THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS,
OTHER DISORDERS OF THE BLOOD.
Translated by the PRESIDENT.
God is the all-powerful Healer.
J.N the year of the Messiah 1783, when the worthy and refpedable
Mau/avi Mi'k Muhammed Husai'n, who excels in every branch of
ufeful knowledge, accompanied Mr. Richard Johnson from Lac'hnau
to Calcutta^ he vifited the humble writer of this trad, who had long
been attached to him with fmcere afFedion ; and, in the courfe of their
converfation, * One of the fruits of my late excurfion, faid he, is a pre-
* fent for you, which fuits your profeflion, and will be generally ufeful
* to our fpecies : conceiving you to be worthy of it by reafon of your
* afliduity in medical inquiries, I have brought you a prefcription, the
* ingredients of which are eafily found, but not eafily equalled as a power-
* ful remedy againft all corruptions of the blood, the judhdrn^ and the
* Perjian fire, the remains of which are a fource of infinite maladies. It
* is an old fecret of the Hindu Phyficians ; who applied it alfo to the
' cure of cold and moift diftempers, as the palfy, diftortions of the face,
' relaxation of the nerves, and fimilar difeafes : its efficacy too has been
* proved by long experience ; and this is the method of preparing it.
VOL. I. 4 D * Take
554 ON THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS.
* Take of white arfenick, fine and frefh, one told ; of picked black
* pepper fix times as much : let both be well beaten at intervals for four
* days fucceflively in an iron mortar, and then reduced to an impalpable
* powder in one of ftone with a ftone peftle, and thus completely levi-
* gated, a little water being mixed with them. Make pills of them as
* large as tares or fmall pulfe, and keep them dry in a fhady place *.
' One of thofe pills mull be fwallowed morning and evening with
' fome betel-Xcdi^^ or, in countries where betel is not at hand, with cold
* The lowell weight in general ufe among the Hindus is the reti, called in Sanfcrit eitlier
rettlca or raElica, indicating rednefs^ and cripnala from crijhna, bluch : it is the red and b/ack feed
of the gmja-^hnt ( i ), which is a creeper of the fame clafs and order at lead with the glyryrrhiza ;
but I take this from report, having never examined its bloflbms. One rattica is faid to be of
equal weight with three barley-corns or four grains of rice in the huflc ; and eight ;v//-weights,
ufedby jewellers, are equal to feven carats. I have weighed a number of the feeds in diamond-
fcales and find the average Apothecary's weight of one feed to be a grain and five-JixUenths.
Now in the Hindu medical books ten of the ra///<w-feeds are one mapaca, and eight majhaca's,
make a iolaca or tola ; but in the law-books of Bengal a majhaca confifts of fixteen raclica's,
z.nA z tolaca oi jive mafia's 1 and, according to fome authorities, /w n/i'^ only go to one
mafiM, fixteen of which make a t'olaca. We may obferve, that the filver >v?«-weights, ufed by
the goldfmiths at Banares, are twice as heavy as the feeds -, and thence it is, that eight retis
are commonly faid to conftitute one tnafia, that is, eight filver weights, or fixteen feeds ; eighty
of which feeds, or 105 grains, conftitute the quantity of arfenick in the Hindu prefcription.
(i) The gvnja, I find, is the M>us of our botanlfts, and I venture to defcribe it from the wild plant
compared with a beautiful drawing of the Jiower magnified, with which I was favoured by Dr. An-
derson.
Class XVII. Order IV.
Cal. Perianth funnel-ihaped, indented above.
Cor. Cymbiform. Jnuning roundifh, pointed, nen,-ed.
Wings, lanced, fhorter than the awning.
Keel, rather longer than the v/lngs.
Stam. Filaments nine, fome (liorter j united in two fcts at the top of a divided, bent, awl-lliaped
body.
PiST. Germ inferted in the calyx. Style very minute at the bottom of the divided body. Stjma,
to the naked eye, obtufe ; in the microfcopt, feathered.
Per. a legume. Seeds, fpheroidal ; black, or white, or fcarlet with black tips.
Leaves, pinnated; fome with, fome without, an odd leaflet.
* water :
ON THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS. 555
* water : if the body be cleanfed from foulnefs and obftrudtions by gentle
* catharticks and bleeding, before the medicine is adminiftered, the re-
* medy will be fpeedier.'
The principal ingredient of this medicine is the arjentck^ which the
Arabs call Shticc, the Perfians mergi mujh^ or mouje-bane^ and the Indi-
ans^ fanchyd ; a mineral fubftance ponderous and cryJialUne : the orpi-
ment^ or yellow arfenick, is the weaker fort. It is a deadly poifon, and fo
fubtil, that, when mice are killed by it, the very fmell of the dead will
deftroy the living of that fpecies : after it has been kept about feven
years, it lofes much of its force ; its colour becomes turbid ; and its
weight is diminiflied. This mineral is hot and dry in the fourth degree :
it caufes fuppuration, diffolves or unites, according to the quantity given j
and is very ufeful in clofmg the lips of wounds, when the pain is too in-
tenfe to be borne. An unguent made of it with oils of any fort is an ef-
fectual remedy for fome cutaneous diforders, and, mixed with rofe-water,
it is good for cold tumours and for the dropfy ; but it muft never be ad-
miniftered without the greateft caution ; for fuch is its power, that the
fmalleft quantity of it in powder, drawn, like alcohol, between the eye-
lafhes, would in a fmgle day entirely corrode the coats and humours of
the eye ; and fourteen reti's of it would in the fame time deftroy life.
The beft antidote againft its effeds are the fcrapings of leather reduced
to afties : if the quantity of arfenick taken be accurately known, four
times as much of thofe afhes, mixed with water and drunk by the patient,
will Iheath and counteract the poifon.
The writer, conformably to the directions of his learned friend, pre-
pared the medicine ; and, in the fame year, gave it to numbers, who
were reduced by the difeafes above mentioned to the point of death :
God is his witnefs, that they grew better from day to day, were at laft
completely cured, and are now living (except one or two, who died of
other
556 ON THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS.
other diforders) to atteft the truth of this afferrion. One of his firft pa-
tients was a Pars\ named Menu'chehr, who had come from Surat to
this city, and had fixed his abode near the writer's houfe : he was fo
cruelly afflifted with a confirmed lues, here called the Perjian Fire, that
his hands and feet were entirely ulcerated and almoft corroded, fo that he
became an obje£l of difguft and abhorrence. This m.an confulted the
writer on his cafe, the ftate of which he difclofed without referve. Some
blood was taken from him on the fame day, and a cathartick adminiftered
on the next. On the third day he began to take the aj-fenick-pilh^ and,
by the bleiTmg of God, the virulence of his diforder abated by degrees,
until figns of returning health appeared ; in a fortnight his recovery was
complete, and he was bathed, according to the practice of our Phyfi-
cians : he feemed to have no virus left in his blood, and none has been
fince perceived by him.
But the power of this medicine has chiefly been tried in the cure of
the juzdm, as the word is pronounced in India ; a diforder infecting the
whole mafs of blood, and thence called by fome Jifddi khun. The for-
mer name is derived from an Arahick root fignifying, in general, ampu-
tation, maiming, excifion, and, particularly, tht truncation or erofion of the
fingers, which happens in the laft ftage of the difeafe. It is extremely
contagious, and, for that reafon, the Prophet faid : ferru mina Imejdhu-
mi camd teferru mind I dfad, or, * Flee from a perfon afBided with the
"■jitdhdm, as you would flee from a lion.' The author of the Bahhrulja-
wdhir, or Sea of Pearls, ranks it as an infedlious malady with the meajles,
xhtfmall-pox, and the plague. It is alfo hereditary, and, in that refped,
clafl^ed by medical writers with the gout, the confutnption, and the white
leprofy.
A common caufe of this diftemper is the unwholefome diet of the na-
tives, many of whom are accuftomed, after eating a quantity oi fijh, to
fwallow
ON THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS. 557
fwallow copious draughts of milk^ which fail not to caufe an accumula-
tion of yellow and black bile, which mingles itfelf with the blood and
corrupts it : but it has other caufes ; for a Brdhmoi^ who had never
tafted Jijh in his life, applied lately to the compofer of this elTay, and
appeared in the higheft degree affedcd by a corruption of blood ; which
he might have inherited, or acquired by other means. Thofe, whofe
religion permits them to eat beef^ are often expofed to the danger of heat-
ing their blood intenfely through the knavery of the butchers in the
Bazar, who fatten their calves with Baldwcr ; and thofe, who are lo
ill-advifed as to take provocatives^ a folly extremely common in India^
at firft are infenfible of the mifchief, but, as foon as the increafed moif-
ture is difperfed, find their whole mafs of blood inflamed and, as it were,
aduft ; whence arifes the diforder, of which we now are treating. The
Perjian^ or venereal. Fire generally ends in this malady; as one De'vi'
Prasa'd, lately in the fervice of Mr. Vansittart, and fome others,
have convinced me by an unreferved account of their feveral cafes.
It may here be worth while to report a remarkable cafe, which was
related to me by a man, who had been afflicted with the Juzdm near four
years ; before which time he had been difordered with the Per/tan fire,
and, having clofed an ulcer by the means of a ftrong healing plaifter, was
attacked by a violent pain in his joints : on this he applied to a Cabirdja^
or Hindu Phyfician, who gave him fome pills, with a pofitive afTurance,
that the ufc of them would remove his pain in a few days ; and in a few
days it was, in fad, wholly removed ; but, a very fhort time after, the
fymptoms of the juzdm appeared, which continually encreafed to fuch a
degree, that his fingers and toes were on the point of dropping off. It was
afterwards difcovered, that the pills, which he had taken, were made of
cinnabar, a common preparation of the Hindus ; the heat of which had
firft ftirred the humours, which, on ftopping the external difcharge, had
fallen
558 ON THE CURE OF THE ELEPHANTIASIS.
fallen on the joints, and then had occafioned a quantity of aduft bile to
mix itfelf with the blood and infedt the whole mafs.
Of this dreadful complaint, however caufed, the firfl: fymptoms are a
numbnefs and rednefs of the whole body, and principally of the face, an
impeded hoarfe voice, thin hair and even baldnefs, offenfive perfpiration
and breath, and whitlows on the nails. The cure is beft begun with
copious bleeding, and cooling drink, fuch as a decodlion of the nilufery
or Nymphea, and of violets, with fome dofes of manna : after which
ftronger catharticks muft be adminiftered. But no remedy has proved
fo efficacious as the pills compofed of arfenick and pepper : one inftance
of their effedt may here be mentioned, and many more may be added, if
required.
In the month oi February in the year juft mentioned, one Shaikh Ra-
maza'ni', who then was an upper-fervant to the Board of Revenue,
had fo corrupt a mafs of blood, that a black leprofy of his joints was ap-
proaching ; and moll of his limbs began to be ulcerated : in this condition
he applied to the writer, and requefted immediate affiftance. Though
the difordered ftate of his blood was evident on infpeftion, and required
no particular declaration of it, yet many queftions were put to him, and
it was clear from his anfwers, that he had a confirmed juzdm : he then
loft a great deal of blood, and, after due preparation, took the arfenick-
pills. After the firft week his malady feemed alleviated ; in the fecond
it was confiderably diminifhed, and, in the third, fo entirely removed,
that the patient went into the bath of health, as a token that he no
longer needed a phyfician.
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
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